The use of nationwide tuberculosis surveillance system data to determine geographical differences in drug resistance--consideration of the representativeness of the drug resistance rate in Japan

Annual reports of tuberculosis (TB) statistics have been compiled using a database built through the nationwide computerized TB surveillance system in Japan. Using the annual report database for 2007-2009, this study compared the drug resistance rates among eight geographical districts. The proportion of bacteriological test results obtained at public health centers, which enter data into their computers that can then be accessed by the central computer, improved greatly from 2007 to 2009. The proportion of initial culture test results obtained among pulmonary TB increased from 63.8% to 74.8% and the proportion of drug susceptibility test results obtained among culture-positive pulmonary TB cases increased from 41.8% to 63.5%. As a result, susceptibility test results among 15,425 (26.5%) of 58,198 newly notified pulmonary TB cases during the three-year study period were obtained. The proportion of multi-drug resistant (MDR) TB among new treatment patients was 0.6% in the whole country. Although there were no particular districts having a significantly high rate of MDR-TB, the Kinki district showed the highest rate at 0.8%. In the case of retreatment patients, the MDR-TB rate was 5.1% in the whole country and there was no statistical difference among the eight districts. The proportion having resistance to any INH among new treatment patients was 4.5% in the whole country, with the Kinki and Kanto districts showing significantly high rates of 5.3% and 5.2%, respectively. In the case of retreatment patients, the proportion having resistance to any INH was 13.3% in the whole country, and there was no district where the proportion was significantly high. The proportion having resistance to one or more drugs among new treatment patients was 12.7% in the whole country, with the Kinki district showing a significantly higher rate of 15.4%. In the case of retreatment patients, the proportion having resistance to one or more drugs was 22.2% in the whole country, and there was no district where the proportion was significantly high. It is important to monitor drug susceptibility results for a comprehensive TB control program. The results of drug susceptibility tests through the nationwide TB surveillance system revealed a tendency toward higher drug resistance in districts that included large cities. Although many problems remain to be solved in order to optimize the use of results from the nationwide computerized TB surveillance system to represent the drug resistance rates in Japan, this practice is expected to yield great benefits.     

河南省结核病耐药水平对全程督导短程化疗效果的影响

目的探讨河南省结核病耐药水平对全程督导短程化疗效果的影响。方法于2001年8月至2002年6月，河南省与WHO合作开展了第2轮结核病耐药监测，采用比例法进行药敏试验，采用现代结核病控制策略的全程督导短程化疗技术（DOTS）对入选的痰涂片阳性肺结核患者1571例进行化疗。结果痰涂片阳性肺结核患者的治疗成功率为85．5％（1343／1571），其中初治成功率为89．6％（1159／1293）；耐药患者治疗成功率为76．6％（433／565），其中初治成功率为86．8％（341／393），复治成功率为53．5％（92／172）；耐多药患者治疗成功率为58．6％（126／215），其中初治成功率为75．4％（83／110），复治成功率为41．0％（43／105）。耐2～4种药物的初治患者的治疗成功率均显著高于复治患者。多因素分析结果表明，与治疗失败有统计学意义的相关因素为复治和耐2种及以上药物，与因结核病死亡有统计学意义的相关因素为复治、年龄较大和耐多药。结论河南省采用DOTS技术对初治肺结核患者治疗效果较好，对复治患者，尤其是对耐多药复治患者的疗效非常差。复治、年龄较大、耐2种及以上药物或耐多药是导致患者化疗效果差的危险因素。     

218例涂阳肺结核吡嗪酰胺耐药情况分析

目的 了解肺结核患者对吡嗪酰胺的耐药情况,为临床结核病防治提供参考。 方法 采用WHO推荐的BACTEC MGIT-960系统法对218例涂阳肺结核进行吡嗪酰胺耐药性检测分析。 结果 218例涂阳肺结核中耐吡嗪酰胺39例,占17.9%。其中163例初治患者耐吡嗪酰胺23例,占14.1%,55例复治患者耐吡嗪酰胺16例,占29.1%; 91例耐多药(MDR)患者耐吡嗪酰胺36例,占39.6%,127例非MDR患者耐吡嗪酰胺3例,占2.4%。复治患者吡嗪酰胺耐药率明显高于初治患者(P＜0.05),MDR患者吡嗪酰胺耐药率明显高于非MDR患者(P＜0.01)。 结论 MDR肺结核耐吡嗪酰胺率较高,应重视对复治涂阳肺结核,尤其是MDR肺结核的吡嗪酰胺耐药性检测,以便采用更合理有效的方案治疗MDR肺结核。     

The background of drug-resistant tuberculosis patients on the basis of the annual report database for 2007-2009 in Japan

In this study, the background of drug-resistant tuberculosis (TB) patients in Japan was analyzed using the annual report database for 2007-2009. The results of the drug susceptibility test of 15,425 patients who were diagnosed with pulmonary TB between 2007 and 2009 were obtained and analyzed. The chi-square test for independence between susceptibility test results and parameters (i.e., sex, age, nationality, etc.) was conducted. Logistic regression analysis was performed using the variables (20s, 30s, 40s ..., new treatment, retreatment, etc.) of parameters that were statistically significant by chi-square test. The risk of multi-drug resistance (MDR) among TB patients who underwent retreatment was significantly high (odds ratio = 11.3, 95% CI: 7.7-16.6, p < 0.001, reference = new treatment), and the risk of MDR among foreigners who had entered Japan within the last 5 years was also high (odds ratio = 9.5, 95% CI: 4.6-19.4, p < 0.001, reference = Japanese). Moreover, logistic regression analysis was performed for TB patients who had previously undergone treatment. The risk of MDR was higher among the patients treated after 1970 than those treated before 1970. Especially, the risk of MDR among the patients previously treated in 1990-1999 was extremely high (odds ratio = 20.8, 95% CI: 5.7-75.0, p < 0.001, reference = before 1970). The risk of MDR among previously treated foreigners who had entered Japan within the last 5 years was also high (odds ratio = 3.8, 95% CI: 1.1-13.2, p = 0.036). Similar to the results for MDR, the risk of resistance to one or more drugs was significantly high among TB patients who underwent retreatment for TB (odds ratio = 2.2, 95% CI: 1.9-2.6, p < 0.001) and foreigners who had entered Japan within the last 5 years (odds ratio = 1.8, 95% CI: 1.3-2.5, p < 0.001); however, their risk of resistance to one or more drugs was lower than that for MDR. In addition, the odds ratios of age groups younger than 80 years to those over 80 years were obtained. They were 2.1 (95% CI: 1.5-2.9) in 0-29 years, 2.2 (95% CI: 1.6-3.0) in 30-39 years, 2.2 (95% CI: 1.7-3.0) in 40-49 years, 2.1 (95% CI: 1.6-2.8) in 50-59 years, 1.9 (95% CI: 1.4-2.5) in 60-69 years, and 1.5 (95% CI: 1.2-1.8) in 70-79 years. With respect to the background of high MDR among TB patients who underwent retreatment and foreigners who have recently entered Japan, the usage of RFP and poor adherence to drugs and entry from high-prevalence countries with high MDR risk were suspected. Regarding the background of generational differences in resistance to one or more drugs, it was suspected that most people over 80 years of age had been infected with TB bacilli in the distant past, before anti-TB drugs were available, when drug-resistant bacilli had not yet emerged. However, the younger generations have become more susceptible to drug-resistant TB bacilli because anti-TB drugs were being widely used when they were born, and drug-resistant bacilli were prevalent in the world.     

Tuberculosis annual report 2009 --series 10. Treatment outcome and TB deaths

Evaluation of the treatment outcome by the cohort analysis method is an important part of tuberculosis (TB) control. In the Japanese TB surveillance system, the treatment outcome is automatically classified by computer according to a pre-set algorithm, so the treatment outcome is evaluated very rigidly. In the case of new sputum smear positive pulmonary TB cases (n = 8,999) newly notified in 2008, the patients' treatment outcomes based on the annual report 2009 database were as follows: "success," which combined "cured" and "completed," was 47.7%, "died" was 19.1%, "failed" was 1.1%, "defaulted" was 3.8%, "transferred out" was 2.8%, "on treatment after 12 months" was 11.8% and "not evaluated" was 13.6%. In addition to evaluation of the treatment outcome by the cohort method, the proportion of deaths was observed among all forms of TB patients (n = 24,571) who were newly registered in 2008. In total, 17.3% of all forms of TB cases died within one year after the beginning of treatment. The proportion corresponding to this was 23.7% for new sputum smear positive pulmonary TB and 23.5% for re-treatment sputum smear positive pulmonary TB. Among the new sputum smear positive pulmonary TB patients (n = 2,136) who died within one year after the beginning of treatment, 37.0% of them died within one month after the beginning of treatment, 51.6% died within two months and 61.9% died within three months.     

上海市结核分枝杆菌耐药性监测研究报告

目的完善上海市结核病耐药监测网络,获得国际可比性的结核病耐药率资料,评价现行结核病控制策略的效果。方法按照WHO/IUATLD的标准,采用100%诊断中心抽样方法,全市各区县结核病定点医院2004年2月—2005年1月诊治的所有新发及复治培阳肺结核病例同时纳入,并对所有分离培养阳性菌株进行菌型鉴定及利福平(RFP)、异烟肼(INH)、链霉素(SM)及乙胺丁醇(EMB)敏感性测试。结果共入选1076例培养阳性肺结核患者,最后获得1015例(94.3%)患者的菌型鉴定及药敏结果,其中结核分枝杆菌964例,占95.0%;非结核分枝杆菌51例,占5.0%。肺结核患者初始耐药率为15.4%(118/764),初始耐多药率为3.9%(30/764);获得性耐药率为27.5%(55/200),耐多药率为12.5%(25/200)。结论上海市结核病耐药率仍然处于国际上相对较高的水平,今后要进一步加强耐药结核病的防治工作。     

Results from 8 yrs of susceptibility testing of clinical Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates in Denmark.

Increased rates of multidrug-resistant (MDR) tuberculosis (TB) has been reported from countries close to Denmark. This study evaluated the incidence of drug resistance in Denmark in order to determine the magnitude of the problem. Susceptibility testing was performed in isolates from 85.4% of all notified patients during 1991-1998. Epidemiological information was retrieved from the mandatory notification forms. Total drug resistance remained largely constant, although a minor increase was observed in 1997-1998. Monoresistance was observed in 7.3%, of the isolates. Among 3.6% polyresistant isolates, resistance to isoniazid and streptomycin accounted for 2.8%, whereas MDR accounted for 0.5%. The MDR strains displayed different restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) patterns, and no matches were identified in the international MDR database. Drug resistance in untreated Danes and foreigners were 5.9% and 14.6%, respectively. Among Danes and foreigners with previous TB, 6.2% and 22.7% had drug resistance, respectively. Increased drug-resistance was found among untreated Danes aged 25-54 yrs mainly due to a single isoniazid and streptomycin-resistant RFLP-cluster. Among all patients with isoniazid and streptomycin-resistance, 77.0% had clustered strains. In conclusion, although drug resistance among untreated Danes was close to the rate estimated in good national programmes, close monitoring is needed in future years, as active transmission of isoniazid- and streptomycin-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis was demonstrated.     

Drug resistance and HIV co-infection among pulmonary tuberculosis patients in Haiphong City, Vietnam

SETTING: Vietnam is one of the 22 countries with the highest burden of tuberculosis (TB). Although its National Tuberculosis Programme (NTP) is effective, there is no ongoing surveillance of drug resistance. OBJECTIVE: To establish the first step of a surveillance programme on anti-tuberculosis drug resistance in Haiphong, the third largest city in Vietnam. DESIGN: A regional survey using proportionate cluster sampling in 2006, and recording patients' characteristics, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) co-infection. RESULTS: There was a high prevalence of HIV co-infection (14.2%) among culture-positive pulmonary TB patients. The prevalence of drug resistance was high, and it was much higher among previously treated cases than among new cases (52.5% vs. 25.6%), with resistance to streptomycin being the most prevalent. The prevalence of multidrug resistance was high among new cases (4.4%), but was relatively low among previously treated cases (10%). HIV co-infection was related to resistance to rifampicin alone among new cases, but was not a risk factor for any other resistance pattern. CONCLUSION: These results suggest a high prevalence of anti-tuberculosis drug resistance and of HIV co-infection among TB patients in Haiphong. Ongoing surveillance to assess resistance trends is needed, and the NTP needs to coordinate HIV and TB programmes to address the growing issue of TB and HIV co-infection.     

Tuberculosis annual report 2009. Series 1. Summary of TB notification statistics in 2009

Annual reports of tuberculosis (TB) statistics in Japan have been compiled mainly using the output of the database obtained through the nationwide computerized tuberculosis surveillance system which has been operated since 1987. This system has been revised several times, with the latest revision conducted in 2007 when much new information was added. Therefore, a plan was drawn up to provide TB epidemiological statistics in Japan on "Kekkaku" and a series of ten reports was already issued as "TB Annual Report 2008". This is the first report of a new series for "TB Annual Report 2009". The report can be summarized as follows. The TB notification (incidence) rate fell below 20 per 100,000 in 2007 and continued to decline, reaching 19.0 in 2009. However, 24,170 TB patients were newly notified in 2009. For sputum smear positive pulmonary TB, the patient count was 9,675 with an incidence rate of 7.6 per 100,000 in 2009. Since June 2007, it has been legally compulsory to notify latent TB infections (LTBI) requiring treatment; the number in 2009 was 4119 cases.     

Tuberculosis annual report 2009--series 8. Treatment of TB(1)

The standard treatment of tuberculosis (TB) is the key to its control. Here we report the statistics of treatment history and the initial regimen for treating TB in 2009. In 2009, 24,170 TB patients were newly notified. Of those, 1751 cases were reported as having had previous treatment and 410 cases were reported as having an unknown treatment history. The proportion of patients receiving retreatment was 7.4%, excluding those of unknown treatment history. The proportion of those receiving retreatment among newly notified TB patients increased with age from those at 20-24 years old (3.2%) to those at 80-84 years old (9.3%). The frequency of retreatment among newly notified TB patients might be partly an indicator of previous insufficient treatment. Regarding the year of previous treatment, the greatest number of cases reported having received previous treatment in 2008 (n=194). The total number of cases whose previous treatment had begun in 2008 or 2009 was 224, i.e. 12.8% of all retreatment cases in 2009. On the other hand, the number of cases having received previous treatment in the 1950s was also significant (n=219, 12.5%). As the initial treatment regimen, the combination of INH (isoniazid), RFP (rifampicin), PZA (pyrazinamide)+EB (ethambutol) or SM (streptomycin) is recommended by the Japanese Society for Tuberculosis. This regimen was initially used in 80.8% of all forms of TB patients aged 15-79 years old, excluding those cases whose treatment regimen was unknown. The data on duration of having actually received PZA was added to the central TB surveillance database starting in 2007. The number of cases who started TB treatment including PZA in 2008 was 15,146. Of those, 11,997 cases had completed TB treatment by the end of 2009, but 9.9% of them could not take PZA fully for 2 months.     

Drug-resistant tuberculosis in South African gold miners: incidence and associated factors.

SETTING: A gold mining company in the Free State Province of South Africa. OBJECTIVE: To document the incidence of and factors associated with drug-resistant tuberculosis (TB) in South African gold miners. DESIGN: Review of Mycobacterium tuberculosis drug susceptibility records for the period from 1 July 1993 to 30 June 1997. RESULTS: Over the study period, 2241 miners had culture-positive M. tuberculosis pulmonary disease where isolates were tested for drug susceptibility to the four primary anti-tuberculosis drugs. The proportions of primary and acquired drug resistance were respectively 7.3% and 14.3% for isoniazid and 1.0% and 2.8% for resistance to at least isoniazid and rifampicin (multidrug resistance). Resistance to streptomycin and ethambutol was uncommon, and rifampicin monoresistance was rare. No significant factors for primary drug resistance were identified. Patients with retreatment pulmonary TB who failed primary TB treatment (versus cure) were significantly more likely to have TB with resistance to any TB drug or MDR (odds ratios respectively 9.82, 95%CI 2.97-33.5, and 18.74, 95%CI 1.76-475). Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection was not significantly associated with primary or acquired drug resistance, and there was no trend of increasing resistance over time. CONCLUSION: Anti-tuberculosis drug resistance has remained stable despite the HIV epidemic and increasing TB rates. Directly observed therapy may have contributed to containing the level of drug resistance. Adherence to and completion of treatment are essential to prevent drug resistance and treatment failure, including in situations with high HIV prevalence.     

Tuberculosis annual report 2009--series 9. Treatment of TB (2)

The standard treatment for tuberculosis (TB) is the key to its control. Here, we report on the statistics of treatment status and the duration of hospitalization/treatment. The place of initial treatment was observed among newly notified TB patients (n = 24,170) in 2009. The proportion receiving treatment in hospital was highest (91.8%) in sputum smear-positive pulmonary TB patients (n = 9,675) including 2.3% hospitalized mainly due to other diseases. The proportion receiving treatment in hospital was the least (25.1%) among bacteriologically negative pulmonary TB cases, including 10.4 % hospitalized mainly due to other diseases. Among sputum smear-positive pulmonary TB cases the proportion of patients receiving treatment in hospital did not differ with age, but among bacteriologically negative pulmonary TB cases, this proportion differed markedly according to age group (e.g., 7.7% of those in their 20s, 24.4% of those in their 50s and 48.8% of those in their 80s). The duration of hospitalization for TB treatment among newly notified cases in 2008 was observed. The median hospitalization periods were 73 days, 78 days, 45 days, 36 days and 46 days, among new sputum smear-positive pulmonary TB cases, retreatment sputum smear-positive pulmonary TB cases, other bacillus-positive pulmonary TB cases, bacilli-negative pulmonary TB cases and extra-pulmonary TB cases, respectively. The duration of TB treatment among newly notified cases in 2008 was observed at the end of 2009. The median treatment duration among all forms of TB was 272 days. The longest median treatment duration was 286 days for retreatment of sputum smear-positive pulmonary TB cases and the shortest was 198 days for bacteriologically negative pulmonary TB cases.     

Secular trends in susceptibility patterns of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates in Kuwait, 1996-2005

OBJECTIVE: To determine the incidence and trends of drug resistance among all Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains isolated during a 10-year period in Kuwait. DESIGN: Drug susceptibility data for M. tuberculosis isolates recovered from all pulmonary and extra-pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) patients in Kuwait from January 1996 to December 2005 were collected and analysed. Patients were divided into Kuwaiti nationals and expatriates. Prior treatment status was not recorded. RESULTS: From 1996 to 2005, 5399 non-repetitive culture-positive TB cases (56% from pulmonary sites and 44% from extra-pulmonary sites) among 917 (17%) Kuwaiti nationals and 4482 (83%) expatriates were identified throughout Kuwait. Overall resistance rates were as follows: any drug 12.5%, isoniazid (INH) 9.1%; rifampicin (RMP) 1.1%, ethambutol (EMB) 2.0%, streptomycin 4.3% and multidrug resistance (MDR) 0.9%. The resistance rates over the 10-year period remained nearly same. However, significant differences were noted in resistance rates for RMP and MDR among pulmonary vs. extra-pulmonary cases and for any drug, INH and EMB among isolates from Kuwaiti vs. expatriate patients. CONCLUSIONS: Moderate and stable single drug resistance (<10%) and low MDR rates (<1%) were found among TB cases in Kuwait. These findings highlight the importance of ongoing control measures to limit the development and spread of drug-resistant M. tuberculosis in Kuwait.     

Tuberculosis epidemiology in India: a review.

High prevalence and incidence of disease and a high rate of transmission of infection characterise the tuberculosis (TB) situation in India. Disease surveys conducted in different parts of the country since the 1950s have reported prevalences of smear-positive pulmonary TB (PTB) of 0.6-7.6 per 1000 population, culture-positive TB of 1.7-9.8 and culture and/or smear-positive TB of 1.8-12.7. The incidence of smear-positive PTB has been observed in the range of 1.0-1.6/1000 and that of culture-positive PTB 1.0-2.5/1000 in the limited number of studies carried out. The annual risk of tuberculous infection (ARTI) had been estimated at 1-2% for most of the tuberculin surveys carried out in different areas over different time periods. During a nationwide study in 2000-2003, the average ARTI in the country was estimated at 1.5%. An increasing trend has been observed in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) seropositivity among TB cases, which has been found to vary between 0.4% and 28.8% in different studies conducted mostly at tertiary health care centres. The proportion of new cases with multidrug resistance (MDR) was relatively low, at 0.5-5.3%. However, the proportion of MDR cases among previously treated cases varied between 8% and 67%.     

The potential to transmit Mycobacterium tuberculosis at a South African tertiary teaching hospital

ObjectivesTo assess the risk of nosocomial transmission by confirmed pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) patients in a high TB/HIV incidence environment.MethodsBetween November 2006 and April 2007, we carried out a cross-sectional survey of PTB patients with positive smears or cultures at an academic tertiary hospital in the Western Cape, South Africa.ResultsOf 394 confirmed PTB patients, only 199 (50.5%) had a known HIV status, of whom 107 (53.8%) were HIV-co-infected. Sensitivity testing for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) was done in 49.3% of patients with available cultures (140/284). Of these patients, 9.3% (13/140) had multidrug-resistant (MDR) TB strains. The turnaround times (TAT) for culture and susceptibility testing were delayed: mean TAT for cultures was 27 days (range 63 days) and for susceptibility testing was 42 days (range 63 days). One fifth of PTB patients (82/394) were diagnosed from wards that do not deal with TB on a daily basis. PTB inpatients were hospitalized for an average of 13 days and were on average transferred twice. Only 14.2% of all PTB patients were notified to the South Africa Provincial Department of Health. Throughout their hospitalization, PTB patients were potentially infectious.ConclusionsThe potential for nosocomial TB transmission in a setting of high TB and HIV co-infection with a high MDR prevalence, inconsistent infection prevention and control measures, and delayed diagnosis cannot be ignored. Barriers to TB infection control must urgently be addressed.     

Tuberculosis annual report 2009--series 3. Childhood TB

The number of newly reported childhood tuberculosis (TB) cases (0-14 years old) in 2009 was 73, corresponding to a case rate of 0.43 per 100,000. In 2007 and 2008, the case numbers and rates of childhood TB increased slightly from the previous years, but in 2009 the case number and case rate were the lowest in the long history of the Japanese TB surveillance system. Among 73 childhood TB patients, 34 (46.6%) were aged 0-4 years, 3 (4.1%) were foreigners and 27 (37.0%) were extra-pulmonary TB. No TB meningitis case in this age group (0-14 years old) was reported for 3 years (from 2006 to 2008), but one case was reported in 2009. Also, 4 cases of disseminated TB were reported in 2009, the highest figure during those 10 years (from 2000 to 2009). As for the mode of detection in 2009, 33 patients (45.2%) were detected at medical institutions with some symptoms or signs, 24 patients (32.9%) were detected by family contact examination, and 8 (11.0%) were detected by other contact examination. In the previous year (2008) these proportions were respectively 36.8%, 45.3% and 8.4%. Of the 47 prefectures in Japan, 27 had no cases of childhood TB in 2009. Childhood TB cases were concentrated in metropolitan areas, such as Osaka (13 cases), Tokyo (11 cases) and Kanagawa prefecture (7 cases).     

Tuberculosis Annual Report 2009--Series 6. Condition of TB (1)

The condition of tuberculosis (TB) at the time at which an individual is diagnosed with TB influences the patient's prognosis. This paper focuses on the condition of TB at the time of the diagnosis based on bacteriological status and X-ray findings. The proportion of bacteriologically confirmed cases among newly notified pulmonary TB patients increased greatly from 25.7% in 1979 to 82.7% in 2009. During this period, the proportion of far-advanced cavitary cases among pulmonary TB patients was around 2% and remained stable. This may mean that the diagnosis had come to be performed bacteriologically rather than radiologically. The proportion of bacteriologically confirmed cases among newly notified pulmonary TB patients in 2009 was studied by sex and 5-year age group. The proportion of bacteriologically confirmed cases increased with age in both male and female TB patients. In male TB patients, the proportion of cavitary cases increased in patients aged up to the end of the 50s and then decreased with age. This tendency was not observed in females. Although the proportion of cavitary cases among elderly TB patients was lower than among youths, the proportion having extensive lesions was greater than that among youths. The proportion of sputum-smear-positive cases with cavities among pulmonary TB patients aged 30-59 years was 32.9 % in male TB patients and 17.1% in female TB patients. According to occupation, this proportion was highest in "temporary workers" (52.6%) for male TB cases and "jobless/ others" (24.9%) for female TB cases, and lowest among "medical workers" in both sexes: 8.3% of male TB cases and 7.4% of female TB cases.     

TB, HIV-associated TB and multidrug-resistant TB on Thailand's border with Myanmar, 2006-2007

Objective To measure the burden and improve management of tuberculosis (TB), HIV‐associated TB and MDR TB in Tak Province, Thailand, which borders Myanmar. Methods From September 2006 to August 2007, we collected uniform data about TB cases and enhanced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) counselling and testing. We provided mycobacterial culture and drug‐susceptibility testing in public or non‐governmental organization facilities. Patients were classified by nationality and, for non‐Thais, by migration status. Results Of 1662 TB cases in the 12‐month period, 1087 (65%) occurred in non‐Thais. Of non‐Thais, 415 (38%) lived in Myanmar but crossed the border for healthcare. HIV infection was diagnosed in 18% of Thais compared with 12% of non‐Thais (P < 0.01); HIV status was unknown for 22% of Thais and 27% of non‐Thais (P = 0.02). Overall, multidrug‐resistant (MDR) TB was diagnosed in 27 patients, 19 (70%) in non‐Thais. Among TB cases never previously treated for TB, no MDR cases were diagnosed in Thais or in Myanmar refugees, but six cases were diagnosed in migrants from Myanmar. Conclusions In Thailand, TB, HIV‐associated TB and MDR TB in migrants from Myanmar are important public health problems; they need to be resolved in both the countries.     

Characteristics of drug resistance and HIV among tuberculosis patients in Mozambique.

SETTING: The rate of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) seroprevalence among tuberculosis patients varies between 2% and 53% in Mozambique, depending on the region. Drug resistance surveillance has been performed in only a few cities in Mozambique. OBJECTIVES: To establish the extent of drug resistance in areas of Mozambique with different levels of HIV prevalence, to estimate the prevalence of HIV among tuberculosis (TB) patients, and to examine the association between drug resistance and HIV infection. DESIGN: All tuberculosis patients diagnosed at randomly selected health facilities over 9 months (September 1998 to June 1999) were enrolled in the study. Sputum was collected, smeared and cultured, and drug susceptibility tests were performed. Blood was tested for HIV in the respective provinces, and patients received pre-test and post-test counselling. RESULTS: Of 709 culture-positive cases, 25.5% were HIV-positive. HIV-positive patients were significantly more likely to have a prior history of treatment (OR 2.2; 95% CI 1.9-3.6) and resistance to both isoniazid and streptomycin (OR 2.3; 95% CI 1.3, 4.5). In patients with no history of prior tuberculosis treatment, the multidrug resistance rate was 3.4% and resistance to isoniazid and streptomycin (HS) was 5.2%. Any drug resistance was significantly more common among those with a history of prior treatment (OR 3.1; 95% CI 2.1-4.7), particularly resistance to HS (OR 4.5; 95% CI 2.6-7.9). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates substantial levels of drug resistance in Mozambique. Differences in drug resistance between high and low HIV prevalence areas may be related to prior treatment.     

HIV/TB双重感染与HIV阴性结核病结核分枝杆菌耐多药现状分析

目的探讨艾滋病病毒（HIV）/结核病（TB）双重感染的结核分枝杆菌耐多药现状,为HIV/TB双重感染的耐多药结核病的防治,制定合理的预防措施及个体化的治疗方案提供科学依据。方法 2004年1月至2008年12月,在南宁市第四人民医院住院的痰结核分枝杆菌培养阳性的结核病患者,按HIV抗体检测结果分为HIV抗体阳性结核病组（HIV/TB双重感染组）和HIV抗体阴性结核病组,对两组检出的结核分枝杆菌进行菌种鉴定及耐药检测（INH、RFP、EMB、SM）,并比较两组结核分枝杆菌的总耐药和多耐药发生率,初始及获得性耐药、耐多药的发生率。结果 HIV/TB双重感染组的149株结核分枝杆菌,发生耐药的61株,总耐药率40.94%,总耐多药率为18.79%;初始耐药率为40.30%,耐多药率为18.66%;获得性耐药率为46.67%,获得性耐多药率为20.0%。HIV抗体阴性结核病组的2152株结核分枝杆菌,总耐多药、初始耐多药及获得性耐多药率分别为15.94%、8.25%、32.36%。结果显示,HIV抗体阳性组初始耐多药率较HIV抗体阴性组高,两者差异有统计学意义（P〈0.01）。结论 HIV/TB双重感染的结核分枝杆菌,对药物的耐药性流行水平有上升趋势,同时多重耐药株增多。结核分枝杆菌耐药性的监测结果 ,是指导临床治疗用药的重要依据。