Effects of bioaerosol polluted outdoor air on airways of residents: a cross sectional study

Background: Bioaerosol pollution of workplace and home environments mainly affects airways and mucous membranes. The effect of environmental outdoor residential bioaerosol pollution, for example, livestock holdings, farming, and waste disposal plants, is unclear.

Aims: To investigate the perceived health of residents living in areas with measurable outdoor bioaerosol pollution (for example, spores of Aspergillus fumigatus and actinomycetes), and effects of accompanying odours.

Methods: In a cross sectional study, double blinded to ongoing microbial measurements, doctors collected 356 questionnaires from residents near a large scale composting site, and from unexposed controls in 1997. Self reported prevalence of health complaints during the past year, doctors' diagnoses, as well as residential odour annoyance were assessed. Microbiological pollution was measured simultaneously in residential outdoor air.

Results: Concentrations of >10⁵ colony forming units of thermophilic actinomycetes, moulds, and total bacteria/m³ air were measured 200 m from the site, dropping to near background concentrations within 300 m. Positive adjusted associations were observed for residency within 150–200 m from the site versus unexposed controls for self reported health complaints: "waking up due to coughing", odds ratio (OR) 6.59 (95% confidence interval (CI) 2.57 to 17.73); "coughing on rising or during the day", OR 3.18 (95% CI 1.24 to 8.36); "bronchitis", OR 3.59 (95% CI 1.40 to 9.4); and "excessive tiredness", OR 4.27 (95% CI 1.56 to 12.15). Reports of irritative airway complaints were associated with residency in the highest bioaerosol exposure, 150–200 m (versus residency >400–500 m) from the site, and period of residency more than five years, but not residential odour annoyance. Lifetime prevalence of self reported diseases did not differ with exposure.

Conclusions: Bioaerosol pollution of residential outdoor air can occur in concentrations found in occupational environments. For the first time residents exposed to bioaerosol pollution were shown to report irritative respiratory complaints similar to mucous membrane irritation independently of perceived odours.

     

Ranking and frequency of somatic symptoms in residents near composting sites with odor annoyance

The presented study reports the prevalence of somatic symptoms in three study samples living in the vicinity of composting plants. Microorganisms were measured in the air of the residential areas closest to the plants at the same time an epidemiological investigation was performed in the neighborhood near (150 to 1,500 m) to three plants and in corresponding control residential areas of the same district. Nine hundred and seventy-nine residents were questioned about the odor annoyance in their vicinity. An instrument measuring somatic complaints (SOMS 2 acc. Rief et al., 2001) was used to determine the unexplained somatic symptoms of the past two years and a gender-independent Total Complaint Index (TCI) was calculated. The percentages of study population reporting somatic symptoms were higher in all six samples in comparison with the German population (Rief et al., 2001) and in samples living near composting sites compared to the corresponding control samples. The study sample living close to site A (exposed to bioaerosols and odor annoyance) had the highest rates of complaints. A difference could be seen in comparison to the corresponding control sample (TCI: p[Anear vs. Acontrol] = 0.001; Mann-Whitney). In this group breathlessness was reported more than twice as often as in the other three samples. Out of the five most frequently reported symptoms four corresponded to the five complaints the German population reports most frequently in all groups. Nausea was the fifth most reported symptom in both samples reporting annoying residential odors (Anear and Bnear). The type of somatic symptoms reported most often was influenced little by environmental odors and medically relevant bioaerosol concentrations, except for nausea in context with annoying residential odors. As expected frequency of reporting general somatic symptoms was influenced by the perceived environment near the three composting sites. Concerning the sum of bodily complaints (TCI) though, this was only significant in the group exposed to medically relevant concentrations of residential outdoor bioaerosols, which was accompanied by high rates for breathlessness. The SOMS2 was able to mirror measurable, medically relevant environmental exposures in study groups and showed fewer changes concerning annoying or presumed environmental exposures.     

Acute sensory irritation from exposure to isopropanol (2-propanol) at TLV in workers and controls: objective versus subjective effects

OBJECTIVES: Phlebotomists occupationally exposed to isopropanol (IPA) (2-propanol) and na?ve controls (n = 12 per group) were exposed to the time-weighted average threshold limit value of 400 p.p.m. IPA for 4 h in an environmental chamber to investigate: (i) acute effects of sensory irritation using subjective health symptom reports and objective, physiological end-points; and (ii) differences in measured effects in relation to exposure history. METHODS: Before, during and after exposure subjects gave self-reports of health complaints. During exposure subjects rated the intensity of the odor, sensory irritation and annoyance. Objective end-points of ocular hyperemia, nasal congestion, nasal secretion and respiration were obtained at various times before, during and after exposure. Results were compared with exposure to phenylethyl alcohol (PEA), a negative control for irritation, and to clean air (CA), a negative control for odor and irritation, using a within-subjects design. RESULTS: Significantly higher intensity ratings of odor, irritation and annoyance were reported during the exposure to IPA, when compared with exposure to CA or PEA. Nevertheless, the overall level of reported sensory irritation to IPA was low and perceived as 'weak' on average. Health symptom ratings were not significantly elevated for IPA as compared with PEA or CA exposure. The only physiological end-point that showed a change exclusively in the IPA condition was respiration frequency: relative to baseline, respiration frequency increased in response to IPA in both groups. No differences were encountered between the occupationally exposed and the control groups. CONCLUSIONS: The increase in respiration frequency in response to IPA may reflect either a reflexive change due to sensory irritation (an autonomic event) or a voluntary change in breathing in response to perception of an unpleasant, solvent-like odor (a physiological event caused by cognitive mediation). Our findings on objective end-points, including nasal and ocular sensory irritation, did not confirm subjective irritation reports. Irritation reports and odor intensity decreased, rather than increased, over time, lending credence to the cognitive argument and suggesting that the elevated subjective responses to IPA may be mediated by responses to its odor.     

Odor frequency and odor annoyance Part II: dose–response associations and their modification by hedonic tone

Objective Risk-assessment for environmental odors and the development of an appropriate guideline for protection against undue odor annoyance have long been hampered by the difficulties of assessing odor exposure and community annoyance responses. In recent years, however, dose–response associations between frequency of odor events and odor annoyance level in the affected population were established. However, the influence of hedonic tone (pleasantness–unpleasantness) and perceived odor strength (intensity) on the degree of odor annoyance have long been neglected in such studies and accompanying guidelines. In order to close this gap a pertinent field study was conducted in the vicinity of six odor emitting plants, two with pleasant (sweets production, rusk bakery), with neutral (textile production, seed oil production), and with presumably unpleasant odor emissions (fat refinery, cast iron production). Methods A standardized sensory method was developed (described in Part I in the accompanying paper) to quantify intensity and hedonic tone within the assessment of odor exposure by systematic field inspection with trained observers. Additionally, exposure-information, the degree of annoyance, and the frequency of general health complaints and irritation symptoms were collected from the exposed residents through direct interviews. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to establish dose–response associations between odor frequency, intensity and hedonic tone as independent variables and annoyance or symptom reporting as the dependent variable. Results It is shown that exposure-annoyance as well as exposure–symptom associations are strongly influenced by odor hedonic. Whereas pleasant odors induced little to no annoyance, both neutral and unpleasant ones did. Additional inclusion of odor intensity did not improve the prediction of odor annoyance. Frequency of reported symptoms was found to be exclusively mediated by annoyance. The results are discussed in terms of environmental stress emphasizing the WHO-definition of health. Conclusions Based on these findings the existing German guideline against undue odor annoyance was modified. Parts of these findings were presented at the 15th Congress of the European Chemoreception Research Organization in Erlangen (2002), at the 43rd Congress of the German Society of Psychology in Berlin (2002), and at the at the 9th Meeting of the International Neurotoxicology Association in Dresden (2003).     

Critical review: the health significance of environmental odor pollution.

Environmental odor pollution problems generate a significant fraction of the publicly initiated complaints received by air pollution control districts. Such complaints can trigger a variety of enforcement activities under existing state and local statutes. However, because of the frequently transient timing of exposures, odor sources often elude successful abatement. Furthermore, because of the predominantly subjective nature of associated health complaints, air pollution control authorities may predicate their enforcement activities upon a judgment of the public health impact of the odor source. Noxious environmental odors may trigger symptoms by a variety of physiologic mechanisms, including exacerbation of underlying medical conditions, innate odor aversions, aversive conditioning phenomena, stress-induced illness, and possible pheromonal reactions. Whereas relatively consistent patterns of subjective symptoms have been reported among individuals who live near environmental odor sources, documentation of objective correlates to such symptoms would require as-yet unproven research tools. Therefore, given our current state of knowledge, any differential regulatory response to environmental odor pollution, which is based upon the distinction between community "annoyance reactions" and "health effects," is a matter of legal--not scientific--interpretation.     

Prevalence of neuropsychiatric and mucous membrane irritation complaints among Palestinian shoe factory workers exposed to organic solvents and plastic compounds

BACKGROUND: Long-term exposure to organic solvents is associated with neuropsychiatric and mucus membrane irritation. In developing countries, efforts to secure a good working environment are inadequate and protection against chemical exposures is often neglected. METHODS: In a cross-sectional survey, the prevalence of self-reported health complaints and the association with long-term exposure to solvents and plastic materials in the work environment was studied among 167 shoe-factory workers. Prevalences and adjusted prevalence ratios (PR)were calculated in Cox regression. 95% confidence intervals were estimated for PRs of adverse health effects. RESULTS: Overall, the workers reported high prevalences of neuropsychiatric and mucus membrane complaints: headache (65%), mental irritability (53%), tingling of limbs (46%), and sore eyes (43%). Cleaning work was associated with tingling of limbs (PR = 1.8, 1.0-3.2), sore eyes (PR = 1.9, 1.1-3.3), and breathing difficulty (PR = 2.0, 1.0-3.9); plastic work was associated with tingling of limbs (PR = 1.8, 1.2-2.9)and sore eyes (PR = 1.7, 1.1-2.7); and varnishing was associated with breathing difficulty (PR = 1.9, 1.1-3.5). CONCLUSIONS: The high prevalence of self-reported health complaints and the exposure-outcome association could be due to volatile organic solvents (dichloromethane, n-hexane)and plastic compounds (isocyanates and polyvinyl chloride). Absence of a satisfactory work environment is likely to contribute to high exposure levels.     

Trait anxiety and modeled exposure as determinants of self-reported annoyance to sound, air pollution and other environmental factors in the home

Objectives We examined to what degree annoyance ratings to noise, air pollution and other common environmental factors in the home environment could be considered to mirror personality disposition in terms of habitual anxiety level and, when appropriate, objectively modeled noise and nitrogen emission (NOx). Methods A trait anxiety scale was introduced in a cross-sectional public health survey with 2,856 respondents. Of these, 705 had self-reported asthma and the rest constituted gender-matched referents. Annoyance to ten specific factors in the residential environment, mainly focusing on source-specific noise and air pollution, was assessed on a six-point likert scale. A-weighted energy equivalent continuous sound pressure level during a full day (24 h; L _Aeq,24) as well as annual average NOx levels (μg/m³) at the residential address were modeled with high resolution, using a road data base and a detailed emission data base for NOx. Results The two most prevalent complaints were annoyance to traffic noise and sounds from neighbors, which was reported by about 8% of the participants. Unadjusted logistic regression analyses using the continuous trait anxiety score as a predictor showed positive associations with ratings of annoyance from total traffic noise, sounds from neighbors, sound from ventilation, exhaust fumes from traffic, sounds from other installations, and vibrations from traffic (ORs between 1.37 and 2.14). Modeled noise and NOx exposure were positively related with annoyance to traffic noise and exhaust fumes, respectively. Adjustment of the trait anxiety scores for other individual characteristics and potential determinants did not change the overall pattern of results. Conclusion Trait anxiety scores were often mirrored in ratings of annoyance, which suggests caution when using annoyance reports either as a surrogate measure for environmental exposure on the individual-level in epidemiologic studies or when studying the moderating effects of annoyance on health outcomes.     

Soziale Ungleichheit von Lärmbelästigung und Straßenverkehrsbelastung

To study the associations of annoyance to noise and exposure to residential traffic with sociodemographic, socioeconomic and regional characteristics as well as housing conditions, a population-based sample of 7,988 adults 18–79 years of age was studied in the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Adults (DEGS1). Annoyance to noise and exposure to residential traffic were assessed by self-administered questionnaires. A total of 6.3?% of the participants reported a high to very high exposure to residential traffic noise, 3.7?% to neighbourhood noise and 2.1?% to aircraft noise. An excessive exposure to residential traffic was reported by 21.3?% of the participants. A high annoyance to traffic and neighborhood noise was associated with a lower equivalised disposable income and poor housing conditions. Additionally annoyance to neighborhood noise was associated with low socioeconomic and occupational status. A high annoyance to aircraft noise was only associated with a low equivalised disposable income and living in apartment blocks. Exposure to residential traffic was associated with all investigated indicators. At present in Germany environmental exposures are social unequally distributed and may lead to negative health consequences in social disadvantaged groups. An English full-text version of this article is available at SpringerLink as supplemental.     

Overview of personal occupational exposure levels to inhalable dust, endotoxin, beta(1-->3)-glucan and fungal extracellular polysaccharides in the waste management chain

INTRODUCTION: In the past decade, we studied occupational bioaerosol exposures in various sites of the waste management chain. In this paper we present an overview of exposure levels of inhalable dust, endotoxin, beta(1-->3)-glucan (known or probable inducers of airways inflammation), and extracellular polysaccharide antigens of Aspergillus and Penicillium species (EPS-Pen/Asp; a common and probably more specific marker of fungal exposure). METHODS: Over 450 personal bioaerosol samples were taken. Mixed regression analyses were performed to estimate exposure determinants, between- and within-worker variance of exposure, and determinants of these variances. Furthermore, we explored whether the type of waste affected the bioaerosol composition of the dust. RESULTS: Endotoxin and glucan exposure levels were relatively low and comparable for waste collection and transferral, green waste composting and use of biomass in power plants. Exposure levels were 5-20 times higher in domestic waste transferral with sorting, and composting of both domestic and domestic and green waste ( approximately 300-1000 EU m(-3) for endotoxin, and 5-10 mug m(-3) for glucan). Observed exposure exceeded Dutch occupational exposure limits at all sites. EPS-Pen/Asp exposure was detected in 20% of waste collectors and 49% of compost workers. Exposure variability within tasks was large (geometric standard deviation > 2), with smaller between-worker than within-worker variance. Type of company and waste largely explained between-worker variance (40-90%), although within companies no major task-related determinants could be established. Markers of exposure correlated moderately to strongly. Relative endotoxin and glucan content in the dust was only weakly associated with handled waste. CONCLUSIONS: Occupational bioaerosol exposure in the waste management chain is lowest for outdoor handling of waste and highest when waste is handled indoors. However, exposure variability is large, with greater within-worker than between-worker variance. Occupational exposure limits for organic dust and endotoxins are frequently exceeded, suggesting workers are at risk of developing adverse health effects.     

Assessment of somatic complaints in environmental health

In patients attributing their health complaints to environmental factors (EnvPat) evidence based medical diagnostics usually do not confirm environmental and somatic causes of symptoms. Many symptoms remain unexplained. Aim of the study was the systematic assessment of medically unexplained physical symptoms (MUPS) in EnvPat and comparison to symptom rates reported by subjects of an environmental study exposed to environmental odors (EnvExp). This specific exposure was chosen, as odors are associated by an unclear mechanism with physical symptoms. By this we aimed to enlighten the open question as to likeliness that MUPS of EnvPat are caused by hitherto unrevealed environmental exposures or result from somatization. MUPS were measured with SOMS-2 in EnvPat n=92, patients presenting in a university environmental outpatients clinic, and different study groups exposed to environmental odors (EnvExp). These were: (1) subjects exposed to annoying odors and medically relevant concentrations of bioaerosols, such as airborne microorganisms (EnvExp-1, n=74), and (2) subjects exposed to odors alone (EnvExp-2, n=282) as well as unexposed controls (Controls, n=235). Logistic regression and analysis of variance were applied to analyze rates of single complaints and the sum index of complaints (SOMS-CoIx). In EnvPat rates of MUPS were highest - significant (p<0.05) adjusted OR in 23 of 25 MUPS compared to controls - and highest SOMS-CoIx (mean 15.3 (S.D. +/-9.3). Rates of MUPS were lower in environmentally exposed subjects with difference in the two strata: while EnvExp-1 differed in several complaints, i.e., nausea and SOMS-CoIx (mean 7.2, S.D. +/-6.9) from controls (p<0.05), EnvExp-2 (SOMS-CoIx mean 4.8, S.D. +/-5.2) showed relevant differences only in two single complaints and not in the SOMS-CoIx from controls, SOMS-CoIx mean 3.9, S.D. +/-5.0. This remained when adjusting for age, gender, and school education. Rates of MUPS in environmental patients were clearly higher than in subjects with actual environmental exposure, making it unlikely that their symptoms are due to undetected environmental factors. MUPS of EnvPat show similarities to psychosomatic patients. In the environmental survey symptom assessment by SOMS-2 was sensitive to different environmental scenarios, i.e., higher rates of physical complaints were only found in subjects with hazardous residential bioaerosols pollution as well as an annoying odor exposure and interestingly not in subjects exposed to annoying odors alone. This underlines that questionnaire data of somatic complaints need to be interpreted on the basis of exposure assessment in order to unjustly attribute health complaints to annoyance.     

The Massachusetts program for reducing the risk of formaldehyde exposure

Urea formaldehyde foam insulation in homes has caused increasing concerns about the adverse health effects associated with residential exposure to formaldehyde emissions. These health effects cover a broad spectrum of symptoms, including neurophysiological effects, respiratory irritations, and eye and skin irritations. Recent studies have also suggested a possible correlation between exposure to formaldehyde vapors and cancer. In 1979, following hundreds of complaints of adverse health effects from occupants of dwellings insulated with urea formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI), the Massachusetts Department of Public Health issued regulations banning the new installation of UFFI in Massachusetts. New State legislation was adopted in 1986 which reformulated UFFI policy. The law established a minimum concentration of formaldehyde of 0.1 parts per million (ppm) below which removal of the insulation is not required or encouraged. A trust fund financed by industry was established to pay for air testing and for the removal of UFFI from homes if the formaldehyde level exceeds the statutory minimum of 0.1 ppm or if an occupant experiences adverse health effects attributable to the insulation. Based on the Massachusetts experience, these requirements have been identified: the need for flexibility and midcourse corrections in the development of health policy to allow for the incorporation of new scientific information or changes in the economic or political environment, the need for close coordination with all affected parties, and the need for scientific and technical policy development to be joined with economic and political perspectives to ensure smooth implementation of health policies.     

Health effects associated with indoor storage of organic waste

Objectives The storing of organic waste indoors for several days can be considered a risk factor for microbial contamination of homes. This has become relevant in the scope of modern waste management programmes. This study specifically addresses possible health aspects in this context.Methods In a cross-sectional study, doctors collected 384 questionnaires in three neighbourhoods without industrial sources for microbial contamination in 1997 in Hesse, Germany. Self-reported prevalence of airway, skin and general health complaints during the past year, lifetime diagnoses by a doctor, and home hygiene (storage of garbage, private composting, pet contact, indoor mould growth), were assessed. With logistic regression analysis, odds ratios (ORs) adjusted for age, gender, level of school education, and frequent contact with dog or cat were determined for indoor storage of waste for more than 2 days for the whole study group and also for a subgroup reporting atopic disposition.Results Longer indoor storage of organic waste was associated with skin rash (OR=2.05 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.09, 3.83]), itching skin rash (>2 months) in the past 12 months (OR=3.58 [95% CI 1.61, 7.96]) and itching skin rash (>2 months) ever (OR=2.77 [95% CI 1.33, 5.75]), as well as lifetime diagnoses of skin disease by a doctor (OR=3.16 [95% CI 1.40, 7.10]) and allergy other than hay fever (OR=2.74 [95% CI 1.28, 5.85]). Associations remained when adjustment was made for atopic disposition. Atopic subjects were at higher risk for these skin-related complaints and diseases.Conclusions These results point to a possible health relevance of the storing of organic waste in the home for several days, especially as far as skin irritation is concerned. These associations possibly result from indoor microbial contamination, e.g., endotoxins due to waste. Atopic disposition is a possible risk factor for this health impairment. Personal waste management should also be considered in studies on health and indoor environments.     

Worker exposure to organic vapors at a liquid chemical waste incinerator

The extent of employee exposure to organic vapors at a liquid/fluid chemical waste incinerator facility was assessed by means of a preliminary survey. The study was conducted at a facility owned by the Metropolitan Sewer District of Greater Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH. The incineration unit employs a rotary kiln and a cyclone furnace (liquid injection) with a common combustion chamber. A wide variety of liquid industrial chemical wastes are accepted in tank truck quantities. Low flow air pumps were used to collect breathing zone and general area samples on standard 150-mg charcoal tubes. The samples were analyzed by a gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector. Benzene, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), toluene and xylene, solvents common to many of the wastes accepted, were selected for determination. The data indicate that the routine operation of this liquid industrial waste incinerator facility results in worker exposure considerably less than the action level (50% of the health standard) for all compounds tested, except benzene. Some workers were at risk of overexposure to benzene if the NIOSH-recommended criteria are used, but not when the OSHA and ACGIH criteria are used. The highest exposure routine operations were cleaning pump strainers after receiving wastes and benzene distillations conducted in the laboratory. The non-routine operation of storage tank entry, which occurred once during the study, resulted in the highest potential exposure of any operation.     

Eye and respiratory symptoms in poultry processing workers exposed to chlorine by-products

BACKGROUND: CDC/NIOSH responded to a request to investigate complaints of eye and respiratory irritation among workers in a poultry processing facility's evisceration department. METHODS: Investigators administered symptom questionnaires and sampled for chlorine and chloramines. Spirometry was performed on workers before and after their work shift. RESULTS: Symptoms were significantly more prevalent in evisceration workers than in dark meat workers (a control group). Air concentrations of chloramine compounds (i.e., trichloramine and 'soluble chlorine') were significantly higher in the evisceration area than the dark meat area. Exposure levels were significantly higher for employees reporting various symptoms compared to employees not reporting those symptoms. Mean trichloramine exposure concentrations were significantly higher in workers with significant cross-shift declines in lung function; air concentrations of 'soluble chlorine' were higher as well, however, not significantly so. CONCLUSIONS: Results of this evaluation suggest a health hazard may exist from exposure to chloramines.     

Bioaerosols--sources and control measures

In every field of activity where organic material is being handled, emissions of dust, gases, odor as well as bioaerosols are bound to arise. For this reason, waste management facilities or else agricultural enterprises are potential emission sources of bioaerosols. The dispersion of bioaerosols from waste treatment facilities and their health impacts continue to be the subject of numerous discussions. This article addresses organizational and engineering measures for the mitigation of bioaerosol emissions. The required scale of emission reduction and the choice of microbiological parameters have to be assessed with respect to location and facility type.     

Assessment of indoor air pollution in homes with infants

Infants spend most of their indoor time at home; however, residential air quality is poorly understood. We investigated the air quality of infants' homes in the New England area of the U.S. Participants (N = 53) were parents of infants (0-6 months) who completed telephone surveys to identify potential pollutant sources in their residence. Carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO(2)), particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter ≤0.5 μm (PM(0.5)), and total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs) were measured in 10 homes over 4-7 days, and levels were compared with health-based guidelines. Pollutant levels varied substantially across homes and within homes with overall levels for some homes up to 20 times higher than for other homes. Average levels were 0.85 ppm, 663.2 ppm, 18.7 μg/m(3), and 1626 μg/m(3) for CO, CO(2), PM(0.5), and TVOCs, respectively. CO(2), TVOCs, and PM(0.5) levels exceeded health-based indoor air quality guidelines. Survey results suggest that nursery renovations and related potential pollutant sources may be associated with differences in urbanicity, income, and presence of older children with respiratory ailments, which could potentially confound health studies. While there are no standards for indoor residential air quality, our findings suggest that additional research is needed to assess indoor pollution exposure for infants, which may be a vulnerable population.     

Occupational exposure of aldehydes resulting from the storage of wood pellets

An exposure assessment was conducted to investigate the potential for harmful concentrations of airborne short chain aldehydes emitted from recently stored wood pellets. Wood pellets can emit a number of airborne aldehydes include acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, valeraldehyde, and hexanal. Exposure limits have been set for these compounds since they can result in significant irritation of the upper respiratory system at elevated concentrations. Formaldehyde is a recognized human carcinogen and acetaldehyde is an animal carcinogen. Thus, air sampling was performed in a wood pellet warehouse at a pellet mill, two residential homes with bulk wood pellet storage bins, and in controlled laboratory experiments to evaluate the risk to occupants. Using NIOSH method 2539, sampling was conducted in five locations in the warehouse from April–June 2016 when it contained varying quantities of bagged pellets as well as two homes with ten ton bulk storage bins. The aldehyde concentrations were found to increase with the amount of stored pellets. Airborne concentrations of formaldehyde were as high as 0.45 ppm in the warehouse exceeding the NIOSH REL-C, and ACGIH TLV-C occupational exposure limits (OELs). The concentrations of aldehydes measured in the residential bins were also elevated indicating emissions may raise indoor air quality concerns for occupants. While individual exposures are of concern the combined irritant effect of all the aldehydes is a further raise the concerns for building occupants. To minimize exposure and the risk of adverse health effects to a building's occupants in storage areas with large quantities of pellets, adequate ventilation must be designed into storage areas.     

Annoyance due to air pollution in Europe

BACKGROUND: Annoyance due to air pollution is a subjective score of air quality, which has been incorporated into the National Environmental monitoring of some countries. The objectives of this study are to describe the variations in annoyance due to air pollution in Europe and its individual and environmental determinants. METHODS: This study took place in the context of the European Community Respiratory Health Survey II (ECRHS II) that was conducted during 1999-2001. It included 25 centres in 12 countries and 7867 randomly selected adults from the general population. Annoyance due to air pollution was self-reported on an 11-point scale. Annual mean mass concentration of fine particles (PM(2.5)) and its sulphur (S) content were measured in 21 centres as a surrogate of urban air pollution. RESULTS: Forty-three per cent of participants reported moderate annoyance (1-5 on the scale) and 14% high annoyance (> or =6) with large differences across centres (2-40% of high annoyance). Participants in the Northern European countries reported less annoyance. Female gender, nocturnal dyspnoea, phlegm and rhinitis, self-reported car and heavy vehicle traffic in front of the home, high education, non-smoking and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke were associated with higher annoyance levels. At the centre level, adjusted means of annoyance scores were moderately associated with sulphur urban levels (slope 1.43 microg m(-3), standard error 0.40, r = 0.61). CONCLUSIONS: Annoyance due to air pollution is frequent in Europe. Individuals' annoyance may be a useful measure of perceived ambient quality and could be considered a complementary tool for health surveillance.     

Annoyance and performance of three environmentally intolerant groups during experimental challenge with chemical odors

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated exposure- and subject-related determinants of annoyance and performance during the chemical odor provocation of healthy persons with self-reported environmental annoyance. METHODS: Persons with self-reported annoyance attributed to (i) chemicals or smells (smell-annoyed, SA, N=29), (ii) electrical equipment (electrically annoyed, EA, N= 16), and (iii) both smells and electricity (generally annoyed, GA, N=39) were, together with referents (N=54), challenged with n-butyl acetate in an exposure chamber at levels far below the threshold values for neurotoxic effects and trigeminal irritation. A sequence of three air concentrations, 0.37, 1.5, and 6 ppm (1.8, 7.1, and 28 mg/m3) was used, counterbalanced within groups, together with intermittent periods of room air between each exposure level. The response measures comprised ratings of annoyance and smell intensity and reaction-time tests. RESULTS: Only the GA group showed clearly elevated ratings of smell annoyance, mucous membrane irritation, and fatigue, as well as longer reaction times, compared with the referents, in response to the challenge. No group difference was found for the smell-intensity ratings. During intermittent periods without exposure, only the GA group maintained higher ratings for mucous membrane irritation and fatigue. Reaction time and all the rating dimensions showed a positive relationship with momentary n-butyl acetate concentration, while cumulative exposure had a more limited impact on the ratings and reaction time. A suggestion effect by the chamber environment before exposure could not be demonstrated. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that self-reported annoyance generalized to both electrical equipment and smells is a better predictor of chemical intolerance than self-reported annoyance to smells only.     

Evaporative gasoline emissions and asthma symptoms

Attached garages are known to be associated with indoor air volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This study looked at indoor exposure to VOCs presumably from evaporative emissions of gasoline. Alaskan gasoline contains 5% benzene making benzene a marker for gasoline exposure. A survey of randomly chosen houses with attached garages was done in Anchorage Alaska to determine the exposure and assess respiratory health. Householders were asked to complete a health survey for each person and a household survey. They monitored indoor air in their primary living space for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes for one week using passive organic vapor monitoring badges. Benzene levels in homes ranged from undetectable to 58 parts per billion. The median benzene level in 509 homes tested was 2.96 ppb. Elevated benzene levels in the home were strongly associated with small engines and gasoline stored in the garage. High concentrations of benzene in gasoline increase indoor air levels of benzene in residences with attached garages exposing people to benzene at levels above ATSDR's minimal risk level. Residents reported more severe symptoms of asthma in the homes with high gasoline exposure (16%) where benzene levels exceeded the 9 ppb.