电子束在均匀水介质中平均能量计算方法的研究

目的：混合笔束模型可以有效地计算电子在类人体介质中的三维剂量分布。入射电子束在介质中不同深度上平均能量的计算精度影响混合笔束模型的计算精度。本文以Monte Carlo的模拟结果为参考,在均匀水介质中,对现有计算电子在不同入射深度上平均能量公式的精度进行评估。方法：将几种计算电子束平均能量公式的计算结果与Monte Carlo模拟结果进行比较。结果：比较了6 MeV、9 MeV、12 MeV、15 MeV和20 MeV电子束的计算结果与Monte Carlo模拟结果表明,对高能电子束现有公式可以有效地计算电子平均能量;对低能电子束,现有公式的计算结果存在较大误差,从而会影响混合笔束模型的计算精度。结论：为了提高混合笔束模型的计算精度,有必要对计算电子束平均能量的方法进行进一步的研究。     

均匀水介质中计算电子束平均能量的拟合公式

在放射治疗中,混合笔束模型(HPBM)是一种计算电子束剂量分布的有效方法。而入射电子束的平均能量分布是影响HPBM精度的因素之一,特别是在电子束射程末端的地方。本文以蒙特卡洛(MC)程序对6~20MeV范围内电子束在水介质中平均能量分布模拟结果为基础,提出了一种新的拟合公式,并将拟合公式和已有的经验公式分别计算的平均能量代入到HPBM中,以美国高能电子束治疗计划联合工作组(ECWG)实测电子束剂量分布的数据为参考,评估了该能量范围内拟合公式的精度。结果显示,由拟合公式计算平均能量得到的剂量分布精度有大约1%的提高。     

基于临床质子加速器的DeepPlan笔形束模型构建

目的:基于佛罗里达大学质子放疗中心（University of Florida Health Proton Therapy Institute, UFHPTI）质子加速器在笔形束扫描模式下的临床实验数据,在DeepPlan中构建相应模型,验证模型构建的准确性并初步应用于临床前列腺癌的剂量计算。方法:在DeepPlan质子模块中建立UFHPTI质子加速器的笔形束计算模型,并将剂量计算结果与临床实验数据进行对比,包括30组积分深度剂量（Integrated Depth Dose, IDD）、30组空气中质子束斑发散大小、1组多能量多点照射下的纵向扩展布拉格峰（Spread Out Bragg Peak, SOBP）和横向剂量分布,以此验证模型构建的准确性。最后以UFHPTI的两个前列腺癌临床放疗计划为指导,将DeepPlan计算结果与商用放疗计划系统RayStation计算结果通过PTW公司的VeriSoft软件进行gamma分析。结果:DeepPlan质子模块计算产生的30组IDD与UFHPTI加速器的临床实验数据平均相对误差为0.01%,最大相对误差为0.23%;30组空气质子束斑发散大小与临床实验数据平均相对误差为0.15%,最大相对误差为1.14%。在多能量多点照射下,DeepPlan质子模块计算产生的SOBP与临床实验数据平均相对误差为1.07%,最大相对误差为3.91%;横向剂量分布和临床实验数据平均相对误差为1.92%,最大相对误差为4.09%。针对两个前列腺癌的放疗计划,DeepPlan质子模块与RayStation计算的三维剂量结果在以3 mm/3%的标准下每个子野的gamma通过率都达到95%以上,其中病例1两个子野（270°和90°方向）的gamma通过率分别为96.4%和97.5%,病例2两个子野（270°和90°方向）的gamma通过率分别为99.3%和98.9%。结论:在DeepPlan中构建了与UFHPTI质子加速器相匹配的笔形束模型,该模型可初步应用于临床前列腺癌的剂量计算。     

基于超强脉冲激光的医用质子辐射束特性研究

目的:探索一种新型的基于超强脉冲激光的医用质子辐射束,为研制基于小型化的超短超强激光质子加速器的激光质子刀进行肿瘤治疗奠定基础。方法:在超强脉冲激光装置SILEX-I上研究医用高能质子辐射束特性。利用CR39核径迹探测器测量质子束的束密度、产额,并采用Thomson离子谱仪和HD810型号辐射变色膜片在固体靶背表面法线方向分别测量能谱及空间分布。结果:质子束空间分布呈现圆盘状、成丝和环状分布。质子束与入射激光方向无关,沿着靶背表面法线方向发射,质子束发射存在较小立体角。对于复合靶,若保持前表面的Al厚度不变,随着后表面C8H8层厚度的增加,质子束流减小。质子束发射在一定能量处出现截止,截止能量与靶厚度和靶材料密切相关。截止能量的大小随靶厚度的增加而减小;在靶厚度相同的情况下,Al薄膜靶的质子截止能量高于Cu薄膜靶。结论:本实验结果为激光质子加速器治疗装置的小型化研制及肿瘤放射治疗提供了一些重要参考依据。     

质子治疗的物理与生物学基础

近几十年来质子治疗在临床上取得了巨大成就,这是因为质子束在物理学和生物学上具有独特的优势。在肿瘤治疗学上质子比常规射线(^60Co、X射线、电子)有两个主要优势：(1)可根据肿瘤在体内的深度,使质子束精确地定位在肿瘤病灶处,以使肿瘤受到最大的照射剂量而不伤害健康组织,从而达到适形治疗。(2)可根据肿瘤的形状改变质子在微观尺度能量沉积的形状,实现辐射生物学效应的改变。基于此,对于形状较复杂的大实体瘤,质子治疗比常规治疗有更高的精度。质子的这些在治疗学上特异的可能性是由其剂量学和辐射生物学特性决定的。剂量学的性质与能量在宏观尺度的沉积特征有关,作为带电粒子,质子在介质中有确定的射程和相对小的散射歧离,此外在射程前端剂量相对较小,而到射程末端剂量达到最大,形成一个尖锐的Bragg峰,基于这屿特点使得肿瘤受到高剂量的照射而周围的健康组织受到很小的伤害;相对生物学效应与能量在微观尺度的沉积特征有关,与重离子相比虽然质子属于低LET射线,但就其能量在微观尺度沉积的性质与常规射线相比质子足致密电离辐射,因此目前已有实验证实质子治疗比常规射线治疗增加了相对生物学效应,然而目前对能量的微观沉积与生物学效应关系的原理仍需要进一步从理论上和实验上研究证明。文中分析了质子与介质的作用过程、以及传能线密度(LET)、相对生物学效应(RBE)、氧增比(OER)等放射治疗学的一般概念,讨论了质子用于肿瘤治疗的物理学与生物学性质。     

质子和其他放射治疗肿瘤的比较

质子加速器是目前世界上最先进的放射治疗设备。本文对质子和目前各国常用的常规射线(兆伏特级的光子和电子),在肿瘤的放射治疗方面进行了比较。并复习了世界各国用质子治疗肿瘤的经验,介绍质子治疗肿瘤的优点、发展历史以及发展前景。质子束进入人体组织时,其大量的能量集中在接近射程终点,称为Bragg峰。放射治疗医生可以通过调节质子加速器能量的方式,使高能量区集中在病人体内一定的区域;在此高量区的后方,放射剂量骤降为零。因此,医生可以使放射线的高剂量区集中在靶区(肿瘤区),避免周围正常组织部受到照射。而用常规射线照射时,周围正常组织仍受到较高量的照射。用目前先进的三维适形放射治疗和调强放射治疗技术,只需用少数的照射野,即可达到非常满意的放射剂量分布。到2004年2月,世界上已有11个国家正在开展质子治疗工作;已用质子治疗病人35838例。所治疗的肿瘤有眼葡萄膜黑色素瘤、中枢神经系统肿瘤、颅底肿瘤、前列腺癌、非小细胞肺癌、胃肠道肿瘤、鼻咽癌、乳腺癌和官颈癌等,均取得较好的效果。目前已引起世界各国放射治疗学界的重视。     

电子束限束筒挡铅后的剂量学效应

本文探讨了挡船对电子束限束筒输出剂量的影响。采用标准水模及IONX2500／3型剂量仪,0.6cm^3电离室,对Philips SL75-14型直线加速器不同能量电子束固定限束筒、等效方野公式推算所得相应限束筒不规则野的吸收剂量进行了实测。结果分析：在限束筒上加空心铅块所获得的等效方野与该限束筒的吸收剂量无明显差别,但与等效方野公式推算所得相应限束筒的吸收剂量差别显著。因此我们认为：用不规则野电子束治疗时,应选用原限束筒的剂量学参数,不宜用等效方野公式推算所得相应限束筒的剂量学参数。     

关于人体平均血压的估算

人体平均血压是一个重要的生理指标。本文对目前临床中常用的近似估算人体平均血压的公式的精度范围做了详细的讨论,指出用目前临床的计算公式算出的平均血压值偏低,而且随着年龄的增大,偏低越严重。同时,文章还提出一种比目前临床使用的公式具有精度更高的计算人体平均血压的公式。文章最后还比较了由近似估算的平均血压计算人体外周阻力的结果。结果表明,虽然本文提出的修正公式算出的外周阻力具有更高的精度,但是从计算外周阻力的角度看,目前临床使用的近似计算人体平均血压的公式也已具有较高的精度。     

基于蒙特卡洛方法和数字体模的质子治疗设施屏蔽优化设计

目的:评估采用蒙特卡洛（MC）模拟方法和中国科学技术大学数字人体模型（USTC体模）在质子治疗设施中的辐射屏蔽优化设计。方法:使用MC模拟方法和USTC体模计算数字体模处于不同位置时在不同部位的当量剂量率（EDR），对安徽省合肥市离子医学中心（HIMC）的新型质子治疗设施的屏蔽设计进行评估，并将其与采用经验公式计算得出的EDR进行比较。结果:使用铁靶时，经验公式计算得出的EDR值比MC模拟方法得到的结果偏高27.6倍；使用水靶时，经验公式计算结果较MC模拟结果高36.6倍，说明使用经验公式进行屏蔽计算将使得剂量被高估，从而导致成本增加，不符合辐射防护最优化原则。结论:利用USTC体模对质子治疗设施进行基于MC模拟的屏蔽计算可以得到更加准确和优化的结果。     

质子束流蒙特卡罗模型的建立及对脊形滤波器的探究

目的:探究脊形滤波器结构对质子束流展宽的影响。方法:利用蒙特卡罗程序FLUKA建立质子束流模型，并进行验证。模拟质子束流通过三棱柱型（A型）和金字塔型（B型）两种脊形滤波器，比较使用和不使用脊形滤波器的模拟值:束流前端最大剂量50%到束流末端最大剂量50%的宽度（E50-D50）、束流前端80%到束流末端80%的宽度（E80-D80）及束流末端80%到束流末端20%的宽度（D80-D20）。结果:根据模型计算出的121.1 MeV质子对应的模拟值绘制的积分深度剂量曲线与实际测量的积分深度剂量曲线，E50、E70和D80位置偏差不超过0.06 mm；A型相比B型将E50-D50平均多展宽了0.80 mm，将E80-D80 平均多展宽了0.27 mm，将D80-D20 平均多展宽了0.08 mm。结论:建立的质子束流蒙特卡罗模型合理，三棱柱型（A型）脊形滤波器展宽质子束流的效果更好。     

Differential-pencil-beam dose calculations for charged particles.

The use of a convolution or differential-pencil-beam (DPB) algorithm has been studied for charged-particle dose calculations as a means of more accurately modeling the effects of multiple scattering. Such effects are not reflected in current charged-particle dose calculations since these calculations rely on depth-dose data measured in homogeneous water-equivalent phantoms and use ray-tracing techniques to calculate the water-equivalent pathlength from patient CT data. In this study, isodose plots were generated from three-dimensional dose calculations using Monte Carlo, DPB, and standard ray-tracing methods for a 4-cm modulated 150-MeV proton beam incident on both homogenous and heterogeneous phantoms. To simulate therapy conditions with charged particles, these studies included cases where compensating boluses were introduced to modify the particle range across the treatment field. Results indicate that multiple-scattering effects, including increased penumbral width as a function of beam penetration and the "smearing" of isodose distributions downstream from complex heterogeneities, are well modeled by the DPB algorithm. The DPB algoirthm may also be used to obtain more useful estimates of the dose uncertainty in regions near the end of the beam's range downstream from complex heterogeneities than can be derived from standard ray-tracing calculations.     

Small-field electron dosimetry for the Philips SL25 linear accelerator

Electron-beam characteristics of a Philips SL25 linear accelerator have been studied. Central-axis percentage depth doses, cross-beam profiles and beam output factors of 6-, 10-, and 20-MeV beams, selected from the available energy range of 4 to 22 MeV, are reported in this paper. The main thrust of this work is to determine the systematic variation of beam characteristics, especially the output factor, with standard cone sizes and cerrobend beam-shaping cutouts down to a field size of 2 X 2 cm Output factors for the standard cones (open field) are energy dependent in a complex manner, increasing with the cone size for the 6-MeV beam whereas decreasing for 10- and 20-MeV beams. The output factor falls below unity at lower energies (6 and 10 MeV) for fields with at least one side smaller than 6 cm, and stays nearly constant for the 20-MeV beam. Measured output factors of small fields are least squares fitted by a second-order polynomial function. Output factors for small rectangular fields have been derived from the one-dimensional and square-root formulas, and the equivalent-square method. Only the one-dimensional formula predicts the measured output factors of highly elongated fields to within +/- 1% experimental uncertainties. Different cones with the same size electron cutout show a varied dose response, primarily due to variation in scattered electron contamination from the cones.     

Biological weighted effective dose in 205 MeV clinical proton beam

The contribution of high linear energy transfer (L) charged particles to dosimetric and microdosimetric characteristics in a clinical proton beam was experimentally studied using an ionization chamber and track etched detectors. The particles mentioned are produced by proton nuclear interactions; at the Bragg peak region slowed down protons also contribute in the L region above several keV microm(-1). Due to these particles the biological weighted effective dose (BWED) of the beam changes with depth. The spectra of particles with L above 7 keV microm(-1) were established by means of track etched detectors, which permitted us to determine their contribution to dosimetric and microdosimetric characteristics of clinical proton beams. The studies were realized in the clinical proton beam of the JINR Dubna Phasotron, with a primary energy of 205 MeV. The relative contribution to the absorbed dose of the particles with L above 7 keV microm(-1) increases from several per cent at the beam entrance to several tens of per cent at the Bragg peak region. The relative biological weighted efficiency (RBWE) for radiotherapy has been calculated using a biological weighting function. It increases with depth from 1.02 at the beam entrance to about 1.25 at the Bragg peak region.     

Energy spectra, angular spread, fluence profiles and dose distributions of 6 and 18 MV photon beams: results of monte carlo simulations for a varian 2100EX accelerator

The purpose of this study is to provide detailed characteristics of incident photon beams for different field sizes and beam energies. This information is critical to the future development of accurate treatment planning systems. It also enhances our knowledge of radiotherapy photon beams. The EGS4 Monte Carlo code, BEAM, has been used to simulate 6 and 18 MV photon beams from a Varian Clinac-2100EX accelerator. A simulated realistic beam is stored in a phase space data file, which contains details of each particle's complete history including where it has been and where it has interacted. The phase space files are analysed to obtain energy spectra, angular distribution, fluence profile and mean energy profiles at the phantom surface for particles separated according to their charge and history. The accuracy of a simulated beam is validated by the excellent agreement between the Monte Carlo calculated and measured dose distributions. Measured depth-dose curves are obtained from depth-ionization curves by accounting for newly introduced chamber fluence corrections and the stopping-power ratios for realistic beams. The study presents calculated depth-dose components from different particles as well as calculated surface dose and contribution from different particles to surface dose across the field. It is shown that the increase of surface dose with the increase of the field size is mainly due to the increase of incident contaminant charged particles. At 6 MV, the incident charged particles contribute 7% to 21% of maximum dose at the surface when the field size increases from 10 x 10 to 40 x 40 cm2. At 18 MV, their contributions are up to 11% and 29% of maximum dose at the surface for 10 x 10 cm2 and 40 x 40 cm2 fields respectively. However, the fluence of these incident charged particles is less than 1% of incident photon fluence in all cases.     

Characterization of fragmented heavy-ion beams using a three-stage telescope detector: measurements of 670-MeV/amu 20Ne beams

Measurements of a 670-MeV/amu 20Ne beam at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Bevalac heavy-ion accelerator with various thicknesses of water absorber were obtained with the BERKLET. The BERKLET, a simple three-stage solid-state telescope detector, has been described previously. This instrument measures the linear energy transfer (LET) and residual energy of particles, allows the identification of the particle's charge, and provides a means of obtaining LET and energy statistics for the beam, separated by particle charge. The track and dose averaged LET dependence on the amount of water absorber was determined for each species of fragment in the beam. Large numbers of low-LET particles in the fragmented beam were detected. The results of the analysis are presented followed by a discussion of the effects of multiple scattering and secondary fragmentation on the measurements. A brief discussion of the implications of the BERKLET measurements for radiobiology is also presented.     

Evaluation of the mean energy deposit during the impact of charged particles on liquid water

The DNA strand break yield due to the impact of ionizing particles on living beings is closely related to the number of inelastic events per unit absorbed dose produced by these particles. The higher this number, the higher the probability of causing DNA strand breaks per unit absorbed dose. In a previous work, it was found that the total number of events produced by primary particles and the secondary electrons is almost independent of the type and energy of the incident particle (or LET). This finding could be supported by a quasi-constant mean energy deposit by inelastic event (ε). In this work, ε was defined and determined for electrons and the non-negative charge states of hydrogen (H?,?) and helium (He?,?,2?) species impacting on liquid water. Ionization, excitation and charge transfer (up to two-electron transfers) processes have been included in present calculations. We found that, for liquid water, ε is within 13.7 ±?4.1 eV, 14.2 ± 1.7 eV and 13.8 ± 1.4 eV for electrons, hydrogen and helium species, respectively, with impact energies changing over three orders of magnitude. Unlike the mean excitation energy, the mean energy deposit per inelastic event depends not only on the target molecule but also on the projectile features. However, this dependence is relatively weak. This fact supports the quasi-independent number of inelastic events per unit absorbed dose found previously when charged particles impact on matter.     

A general solution to charged particle beam flattening using an optimized dual-scattering-foil technique, with application to proton therapy beams

This paper describes a dual-scattering-foil technique for flattening of radiotherapeutic charged particle beams. A theory for optimization of shapes and thicknesses of the scattering foils is presented. The result is a universal optimal secondary-scatterer profile, which can be adapted to any charged particle beam by a simple scaling procedure. The calculation of the mean square scattering angle of the beam after passing through the scattering foils is done using the generalized Fermi-Eyges model for charged particle transport. It is shown that the fluence profile in the plane of interest can be made flat to better than 1% inside a predefined beam radius provided the shaped secondary scatterer has the universal radial thickness profile. The thicknesses of the two foils are optimized to minimize the total energy loss. The theory has been tested experimentally in an 180 MeV clinical proton beam. The measured distributions agree well with the calculations.     

A theoretical model for event statistics in microdosimetry. I: Uniform distribution of heavy ion tracks.

In this work we describe a novel approach to solving microdosimetry problems using conditional probabilities and geometric concepts. The intersection of a convex site with a field of randomly oriented straight track segments is formulated in terms of the relative overlap between the chord associated with the action line of the track and the track itself. This results in a general formulation that predicts the contribution of crossers, stoppers, starters, and insiders in terms of two separate functions: the chord length distribution (characteristic of the site geometry and the type of randomness) and an independent set of conditional probabilities. A Monte Carlo code was written in order to validate the proposed approach. The code can represent the intersection between an isotropic field of charged particle tracks and a general ellipsoid of unrestricted geometry. This code was used to calculate the event distribution for a sphere as well as the expected mean value and variance of the track length distribution and to compare these against the deterministic calculations. The observed agreement was shown to be very good, within the precision of the Monte Carlo approach. The formulation is used to calculate the event frequency, lineal energy, and frequency mean specific energy for several monoenergetic and isotropic proton fields in a spherical site, as a function of the site diameter, proton energy, and the event type.     

Neutron flux-density and secondary-particle energy spectra at the 184-inch synchrocyclotron medical facility

We have identified the sources of neutron production in the beam transport system of the 720-MeV helium beam used for radiation therapy at the 184-in synchrocyclotron of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, and determined their magnitude. Measurements with activation detectors of differing energy response were used to unfold secondary particle spectra at various locations on the patient table. The effect of charged particles was estimated using a calculation of neutron-flux densities derived from published cross sections. The absorbed dose, as a function of distance from the beam axis, was calculated using the unfolded spectra and evaluated fluence-to-dose conversion factors. The values of absorbed dose obtained from the unfolding of experimental data agree with the values obtained from the calculated spectra within the estimated uncertainty of +/- 25%. These values are approximately 5 X 10(-3) rad on the beam axis and approximately 1 X 10(-3) rad at distances greater than 20 cm, perpendicular to the beam axis, per rad deposited by the incident alpha-particle beam in the plateau. Estimates of upper limits of dose to two critical organs, the lens of the eye and red bone marrow, are approximately 25 rad and approximately 5 rad, respectively, for a typical treatment plan.     

Monte Carlo study of radial energy deposition from primary and secondary particles for narrow and large proton beamlet source models

In spot-scanning intensity-modulated proton therapy, numerous unmodulated proton beam spots are delivered over a target volume to produce a prescribed dose distribution. To accurately model field size-dependent output factors for beam spots, the energy deposition at positions radial to the central axis of the beam must be characterized. In this study, we determined the difference in the central axis dose for spot-scanned fields that results from secondary particle doses by investigating energy deposition radial to the proton beam central axis resulting from primary protons and secondary particles for mathematical point source and distributed source models. The largest difference in the central axis dose from secondary particles resulting from the use of a mathematical point source and a distributed source model was approximately 0.43%. Thus, we conclude that the central axis dose for a spot-scanned field is effectively independent of the source model used to calculate the secondary particle dose.