Exposures to benzene and other volatile compounds from active and passive smoking

Personal exposures and breath concentrations of approximately 20 volatile organics were measured for 200 smokers and 322 nonsmokers in New Jersey and California. Smokers displayed significantly elevated breath levels of benzene, styrene, ethylbenzene, m + p-xylene, o-xylene, and octane. Significant increases in breath concentration with number of cigarettes smoked were noted for the first four aromatic compounds. Based on direct measurements of benzene in mainstream cigarette smoke, it is calculated that a typical smoker inhales 2 mg benzene daily, compared to 0.2 mg/day for the nonsmoker. Thus, cigarette smoking may be the most important source of exposure to benzene for about 50 million citizens of the United States. Passive smokers exposed at work had significantly elevated levels of aromatics in their breath. Indoor air levels in homes with smokers were significantly greater than in nonsmoking homes during fall and winter but not during spring and summer. The average annual increase in homes with smokers was 3.6 microgram/m3 for benzene and 0.5 microgram/m3 for styrene--an approximate 50% relative increase in each case. Thus, exposure to benzene and styrene may be increased for the approximately 60% of children and other nonsmokers living in homes with smokers.     

Methemoglobin levels in smokers and non-smokers

The authors analyzed the blood of a group of 336 smokers and 336 non-smokers to determine if tobacco smoke, potentially the major source of nitrogen oxide pollution for 40% of the adult population, significantly reduces oxygen carrying capacity as a result of methemoglobin formation. Each blood sample was analyzed for carboxyhemoglobin, methemoglobin, and hemoglobin using an automated spectrophotometer. The mean value of methemoglobin in the smokers did not exceed that in the non-smokers; in fact, the level in the non-smokers was significantly greater. As expected, carboxyhemoglobin levels in smokers substantially exceeded those in non-smokers. The authors conclude that methemoglobin arising from cigarette smoke exposure does not interfere with the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood in smokers.     

Concentration of ethanol and other volatile compounds in the blood of acutely poisoned alcoholics.

The presence of volatile compounds, such as acetone, acetaldehyde, methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, and n-propanol, in the blood of 169 acutely poisoned alcoholics was determined. The clinical diagnosis of addiction was made on the basis of a patient interview as well as physical, psychological, and psychiatric examination. At the time of the patients' admission to the clinic, the mean concentration of ethanol in blood was 3.14 +/- 1.10 g/l and its elimination rate in the studied group was 0.27 +/- 0.08 g/kg/hr, an elimination rate significantly higher (P <.001) than that of social drinkers, which averages to 0.014 +/- 0.04 g/kg/h. The presence of other volatile compounds in the blood of alcohol-addicted patients is common. The calculated elimination rate constant of methanol was about 0.2 h(-1). This rate seems to indicate that, in heavy drinkers, the elimination of methanol may be relatively fast even if the ethanol concentration is above 1 g/l. The elimination of other volatile compounds can be accelerated by large doses of ethanol, although it is not correlated with actual blood ethanol level. Moreover, in most of the blood samples with a methanol concentration below 10 mg/l, the measured concentration of acetone was below 7 mg/l and that of isopropanol was below 2 mg/l.     

Dietary patterns of women smokers and non-smokers

The 1-day food intakes of 1,338 women, aged 19 to 50, who were respondents in the 1985 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals, were studied. The energy, nutrient, and food intake patterns of smokers, those how had quit smoking, and those who had never smoked cigarettes were compared. Mean energy intakes of smokers (1,627 kcal), those who had never smoked (1,620 kcal), and those who had quit at least 1 year before the interview (1,719 kcal) were not significantly different. Self-reported body weight was significantly different between never-smokers and smokers (p less than .01) and quitters (p less than .05) only for the oldest category of women (ages 41 to 50 years). The consumption of fruits (p less than .001) and vegetables (p less than .01) was significantly lower and the intake of eggs (p less than .01), sugars (p less than .001), regular carbonated soft drinks (p less than .01), coffee (p less than .001), and alcoholic beverages (p less than .001) was significantly higher for women smokers than for non-smokers. After controlling through regression analysis for physical activity, health status, and demographic characteristics, we found that smokers, compared with never-smokers, had significantly lower protein (p less than .04), dietary fiber (p less than .001), vitamin C (p less than .001), and thiamin (p less than .01) intakes and higher cholesterol (p less than .02) intakes per 1,000 kcal.     

Indoor air concentrations of benzene and some other aromatic hydrocarbons

Using passive sampling and gas-chromatographic analysis, the concentration of benzene and some other aromatic hydrocarbons was determined inside and outside homes. With sampling periods from one to several days average indoor benzene concentrations below 20 μg/m³ were measured. The mean value for simultaneous sampling of outdoor air next to the dwellings investigated was found to be about 30 μg/m³.     

Blood pressure lowering effect of nifedipine in smokers and non-smokers

The authors summarized the relationships between the cardiovascular diseases and smoking. In their retrospective study they studied the acute antihypertensive effect of nifedipine in patients with essential hypertension who were smokers and nonsmokers. They suggest that the antihypertensive effect of nifedipine did not decrease in smokers. Therefore the nifedipine can be the first choice in the antihypertensive therapy in smokers with essential hypertension.     

Levels of volatile organic compounds in homes in Dalian,China

This paper measured selected individual volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including formaldehyde, in residences in Dalian, evaluated the association between the apartment characteristics and VOC concentrations, and explored the associations between chemicals and sick building syndrome (SBS). Higher VOC concentrations were measured indoors than outdoors in summer (August to September) and winter (January to March) in Dalian, and there were no strong correlations between the indoor and outdoor concentrations of most VOCs. This indicates the dominance of indoor sources as compared to outdoor sources. Formaldehyde was the most abundant compound in this study, followed by toluene, benzene, xylene, and styrene. These pollutants increase the occurrence of SBS. Thus, the VOC levels in dwellings in Dalian should be regulated, in view of SBS risks.     

Prevalence and incidence of COPD in smokers and non-smokers: the Rotterdam Study

COPD is the third leading cause of death in the world and its global burden is predicted to increase further. Even though the prevalence of COPD is well studied, only few studies examined the incidence of COPD in a prospective and standardized manner. In a prospective population-based cohort study (Rotterdam Study) enrolling subjects aged ≥45, COPD was diagnosed based on a pre-bronchodilator obstructive spirometry (FEV₁/FVC < 0.70). In absence of an interpretable spirometry within the Rotterdam Study, cases were defined as having COPD diagnosed by a physician on the basis of clinical presentation and obstructive lung function measured by the general practitioner or respiratory physician. Incidence rates were calculated by dividing the number of incident cases by the total number of person years of subjects at risk. In this cohort of 14,619 participants, 1993 subjects with COPD were identified of whom 689 as prevalent ones and 1304 cases as incident ones. The overall incidence rate (IR) of COPD was 8.9/1000 person-years (PY); 95 % Confidence Interval (CI) 8.4–9.4. The IR was higher in males and in smokers. The proportion of female COPD participants without a history of smoking was 27.2 %, while this proportion was 7.3 % in males. The prevalence of COPD in the Rotterdam Study is 4.7 % and the overall incidence is approximately 9/1000 PY, with a higher incidence in males and in smokers. The proportion of never-smokers among female COPD cases is substantial.     

Carboxyhaemoglobin levels of smokers and non-smokers working in the City of London.

The carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb) levels of two groups of workers in the City of London were determined. The mean COHb in smokers (5-8%) was significantly greater than that of the non-smoking group (1-3%). In general, cigarette consumption could be directly related to the COHb level but there was considerable individual variation. The mean COHb level of manual workers was significantly lower than that of sedentary workers even though the former group tended to smoke more heavily.     

Food and nutrient intake differences between smokers and non-smokers in the US.

Data from the Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were analyzed to determine food and nutrient intake differences between current smokers (also categorized as light, moderate, and heavy smokers) and non-smokers. Smokers in several age-race-sex categories have lower intakes of vitamin C, folate, fiber, and vitamin A than non-smokers, and intake tended to decrease as cigarette consumption increased, particularly for vitamin C, fiber, and folate. Smokers were less likely to have consumed vegetables, fruits (particularly fruits and vegetables high in vitamins C and A), high fiber grains, low fat milk, and vitamin and mineral supplements than non-smokers. A negative linear trend was found between smoking intensity and intake of several categories of fruits and vegetables. These data suggest that the high cancer risk associated with smoking is compounded by somewhat lower intake of nutrients and foods which are thought to be cancer protective.     

Social determinants of nutrient intake in smokers and non-smokers during pregnancy.

STUDY OBJECTIVE--The aim was to investigate the effects of social factors (education, income, marital status, partners' employment status, housing tenure, social class), smoking, and maternal height on the dietary intake of pregnant women. DESIGN--The study was a prospective investigation on a two phase sample. SETTING--The study involved women attending the antenatal clinic at a district general hospital. PATIENTS--A group of pregnant Caucasian women, selected because they were heavy smokers (15+ cigarettes/day) (n = 94) and a randomly selected sample of never smokers (n = 112) were studied. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS--Data on social factors were collected by interviewer administered questionnaire. A 7 day weighed intake method was used to determine dietary intake at 28 weeks gestation. In univariate analyses, income, housing tenure and social class had significant effects on intakes of both macro- and micronutrients, and maternal education and smoking had significant effects on intakes of micronutrients. Using a stepwise multivariate analysis with income, smoking and maternal education, income was a significant factor in the intake of most nutrients but this effect disappeared when social class and housing tenure factors were entered into the model. Only social class and housing tenure had any significant effect on intakes of macronutrients--energy, protein and fat. Smoking and maternal education were the most important determinants of quality of diet (nutrient density); other factors had only negligible effects. Income was the only significant factor in alcohol intake. It is suggested that the effects of social class and income are overlapping. CONCLUSIONS--Smoking, being renters of accommodation, and being of minimum education and low social class are risk factors for poor dietary intake. It is recommended that such higher risk groups be specifically targeted for nutritional advice in pregnancy.     

Public bus and taxicab drivers' work-time exposure to aromatic volatile organic compounds

Information on the work-time exposure of public bus and taxicab drivers to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) may be a critical factor in exploring the association between occupational exposure and health effects. Accordingly, this study evaluated the work-time VOC exposure of public bus and taxicab drivers by measurement of six selected aromatic VOC concentrations in the personal air of public bus and taxicab drivers during winter and summer. Two groups of five public bus drivers (smokers and nonsmokers) and two groups of five taxicab drivers (smokers and nonsmokers) were recruited for the study. The taxicab drivers were found to be exposed to higher aromatic compound levels than the bus drivers during their daily work time. The personal exposure of the bus and taxicab drivers was influenced by whether or not they smoked plus the season. It was also established that the potential exposure of bus drivers to aromatic VOCs did not exceed that of an unemployed reference group, whereas the potential exposure of taxicab drivers did. Meanwhile, based on comparison of the calculated in-vehicle concentrations with those from a previous study, the VOC levels inside public buses and taxicabs were found to be lower than those inside automobiles.     

中国的吸烟者和不吸烟者抗氧化营养素摄入状况研究

目的分析中国人群非吸烟者、轻度吸烟者和重度吸烟者的食物及抗氧化营养素的摄入状况。方法利用2002年中国居民营养与健康调查的数据，选取15岁以上填写完整的吸烟情况并进行膳食调查的人群作为研究对象，共51115人（男性24077人，女性27038人）。结果按照地区、年龄调整后，吸烟者浅色蔬菜、酒精的平均摄入量高于不吸烟者，而深色蔬菜、水果的摄入量低于不吸烟者。男性吸烟者的能量及宏量营养素的平均摄入量均高于不吸烟者和轻度吸烟者，但是女性吸烟者有相反的趋势。按照地区、年龄、体重指数、能量摄入量的调整后，轻度吸烟者（LS）抗氧化维生素的摄入最显著低于不吸烟者（NS），胡萝b素（男性LS=1824．7μg、NS=1964．8μg，女性LS=1565．4μg,NS=2127．4μg）、硫胺素（男性LS=0．84mg、NS=0．85mg，女性LS=0．72mg、NS=0．74mg）、维生素E（a）（男性LS=9．2mg、NS=9．3mg，女性LS=7．4mg、NS=8．1mg）、抗坏血酸（男性LS=91．2mg、NS=94．2mg，女性LS=76．9mg、NS=87．5mg）。结论吸烟者膳食中抗氧化维生素的摄入量明显低于不吸烟者，吸烟者较低的抗氧化营养素的摄入是其慢性病发生和死亡率高的一个因素。