Compared with parenteral nutrition, enteral feeding attenuates the acute phase response and improves disease severity in acute pancreatitis

Background—In patients with major trauma andburns, total enteral nutrition (TEN) significantly decreases the acutephase response and incidence of septic complications when compared with total parenteral nutrition (TPN). Poor outcome in acute pancreatitis isassociated with a high incidence of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and sepsis.
Aims—To determine whether TEN can attenuate theacute phase response and improve clinical disease severity in patientswith acute pancreatitis.
Methods—Glasgow score, Apache II, computedtomography (CT) scan score, C reactive protein (CRP), serum IgMantiendotoxin antibodies (EndoCAb), and total antioxidant capacity(TAC) were determined on admission in 34 patients with acutepancreatitis. Patients were stratified according to disease severityand randomised to receive either TPN or TEN for seven days and thenre-evaluated.
Results—SIRS, sepsis, organ failure, and ITUstay, were globally improved in the enterally fed patients. The acutephase response and disease severity scores were significantly improvedfollowing enteral nutrition (CRP: 156 (117-222) to 84 (50-141),p<0.005; APACHE II scores 8 (6-10) to 6 (4-8), p<0.0001) withoutchange in the CT scan scores. In parenterally fed patients theseparameters did not change but there was an increase in EndoCAb antibodylevels and a fall in TAC. Enterally fed patients showed no change in the level of EndoCAb antibodies and an increase in TAC.
Conclusion—TEN moderates the acute phaseresponse, and improves disease severity and clinical outcome despiteunchanged pancreatic injury on CT scan. Reduced systemic exposure toendotoxin and reduced oxidant stress also occurred in the TEN group.Enteral feeding modulates the inflammatory and sepsis response in acute pancreatitis and is clinically beneficial.

Keywords:acute pancreatitis; enteral nutrition; bacterialtranslocation; oxidative stress

     

Issues of nutritional support for the patient with acute pancreatitis

Management strategies in the nutritional support of the patient with acute pancreatitis have changed dramatically over the past 10 years. Prospective randomized trials show that maintaining gut integrity is equally as important as placing the pancreas at rest while inflammation within the gland resolves. In comparison to total parenteral nutrition and gut disuse, enteral feeding attenuates disease severity, reduces oxidative stress, and improves patient outcome. Nasojejunal feeds infused at or below the Ligament of Treitz should be provided to those patients with severe pancreatitis, as identified by a number of standardized scoring systems such as Ranson Criteria, APACHE II, Glasgow, and Imrie scores. Total parenteral nutrition should be reserved only for the patient with severe pancreatitis, initiated 4 to 5 days after peak inflammation in whom intolerance to enteral feeding has been shown and/or enteral access cannot be obtained. Vigilant monitoring is required to assure safe and effective delivery of enteral nutrients.     

Total enteral nutrition as prophylactic therapy for pancreatic necrosis infection in severe acute pancreatitis.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the capacity of enteral nutrition, in comparison with the total parenteral nutrition (TPN) plus antibiotic therapy, for avoiding pancreatic necrosis infection in the severe acute pancreatitis. METHODS: In the period between October 1998 and September 2003, 87 patients met the inclusion criteria and took part in this research. Within the first week from their admission, 43 patients received TPN and 44 patients received total enteral nutrition (TEN). An adequate prophylactic antibiotic therapy was used in both groups. The severity of the manifestations was similar for both groups having a tomographic 'severity index' of 8 and an entry C-reactive protein of 208 and 203 mg/l, respectively. RESULTS: The group that received TPN suffered an organ failure in 79% of the cases, while the percentage showed by the group that received TEN was 31%; 88 and 25% of the patients in each group requiring a surgical intervention, respectively (p < 0.001). There was decreased presence of pancreatic necrosis infection in the group of patients that was supplied with TEN (20%) than in the group receiving TPN, where it reached 74% (p < 0.001). The death rate was significantly higher among the patients who received TPN, (35%), while for the patients who received TEN it was only 5% (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: TEN could be used as a prophylactic therapy for infected pancreatic necrosis since it significantly diminished the necrosis infection as well as the mortality.     

Nutritional support in acute pancreatitis

Acute pancreatitis is a catabolic condition requiring adequate nutritional support to avoid severe nitrogen loss. Providing nutrition to the patients with acute pancreatitis is, however, limited by the fact that oral feeding may stimulate the pancreas and aggravate the pancreatitis. Hence, total parenteral nutrition (TPN) is recommended for such patients but that too has limitations apart from its prohibitive cost. At the same time, therefore, enteral feeds have been developed, which provide adequate nutrition and are fairly well tolerated by these patients. Based on the available studies, a rational scheme of managing acute pancreatitis has been recommended. Patients with moderately severe acute pancreatitis who are malnourished or are likely to develop complications requiring surgery should be supported with total parenteral nutrition from an early stage. All patients with severe acute pancreatitis should, on the other hand, be supported with total parenteral nutrition from the beginning, but enteral nutrition via a jejunostomy should be commenced as early as possible since such patients often run a protracted course and giving them TPN might become exorbitantly expensive and impractical. Mixed or polymeric feeds are tolerated well from the sixth or seventh postoperative day but in an occasional patient elemental diet via the jejunostomy may become necessary.     

The effect of minimum luminal nutrition on mucosal cellularity and immunity of the gut

Many catabolic patients can only consume small volumes of enteral nutrients. The aim of this study was to evaluate markers of cellularity and immunity in the small intestine of rats randomized to receive 6 days of parenteral nutrition, 25% enteral and 75% parenteral nutrition (i.e. minimum luminal nutrition) or enteral nutrition. The same glutamine-enriched solution was used for both parenteral and enteral nutrition. Enteral nutrition was associated with the least amount of jejunal atrophy ( P < 0.01), with the results from the minimum luminal nutrition group approximating those of the parenteral nutrition group. Parenteral nutrition was associated with the greatest number of CD2+ cells ( P < 0.05) and the lowest CD4/CD8 cell ratio ( P < 0.01) in the jejunal mucosa. In essence, we failed to demonstrate that there are any appreciable benefits associated with the enteral consumption of 25% of a nutrient load.     

Post-feeding hyperammonaemia in patients with transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt and liver cirrhosis: role of small intestinal ammonia release and route of nutrient administration

BACKGROUND: Hyperammonaemia is a pathogenetic factor for hepatic encephalopathy that may be augmented after a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS). Experimental data suggest that hyperammonaemia may be caused to a large extent by metabolism of small intestinal enterocytes rather than colonic bacteria. AIMS: To evaluate if ammonia release and glutamine metabolism by small intestinal mucosa contribute to hyperammonaemia in vivo in patients with liver cirrhosis. METHODS: Using TIPS to examine mesenteric venous blood, we measured mesenteric venous-arterial concentration differences in ammonia and glutamine in patients with liver cirrhosis before, during, and after enteral (n = 8) or parenteral (n = 8) isonitrogenous infusion of a glutamine containing amino acid solution. RESULTS: During enteral nutrient infusion, ammonia release increased rapidly compared with the post-absorptive state (65 (58-73) v. 107 (95-119) micromol/l after 15 min; mean (95% confidence interval)) in contrast with parenteral infusion (50 (41-59) v. 62 (47-77) micromol/l). This resulted in a higher portal ammonia load (29 (21-36) v. 14 (8-21) mmol/l/240 minutes) and a higher degree of systemic hyperammonaemia (14 (11-17) v. 9 (6-12) mmol/l/240 minutes) during enteral than parenteral infusion. The mesenteric venous-arterial concentration difference in glutamine changed from net uptake to release at the end of the enteral infusion period (-100 (-58 to -141) v. 31 (-47-110) micromol/l) with no change during parenteral nutrition. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that small intestinal metabolism contributes to post-feeding hyperammonaemia in patients with cirrhosis. When artificial nutrition is required, parenteral nutrition may be superior to enteral nutrition in patients with portosystemic shunting because of the lower degree of systemic hyperammonaemia.     

Peripheral parenteral nutrition in geriatric wards

Poor nutritional status significantly contributes to morbidity and mortality in elderly. Malnutrition and denutrition are amenable to interventions aimed to improve outcomes in acute conditions so that nutritional support is frequently initiated during hospitalisation. If the enteral route remains the first evidence-based choice when the gut is functional, this approach may be difficult to perform in some "geriatric" situations like delirium, agitation, coma or pulmonary congestion. In the first days of the acute condition, when the patient is still stable, an alternative to the enteral route may also be considered. Although there is no evidence that parenteral nutrition is better than enteral nutrition, the peripheral intravenous route may be of interest especially when the enteral route is contraindicated. Moreover, the technique of peripheral parenteral nutition reduces central cannulation-related complications like pneumothorax. We emphasize here the place of this alternative method for a short duration nutritional support when supplement of caloric intake is needed. We discuss indications, a practical approach, our experience and analyze the evidences for this complementary nutritional support.     

Nutritional care for patients with Crohn's disease

Protein calorie malnutrition, in addition to deficits of other nutrients, occurs frequently among patients with Crohn's disease. In most instances the mechanisms by which these deficits occur are multifactorial. The most appropriate method to assess nutritional status includes a nutritionally oriented medical history and physical examination combined with a measurement of serum albumin. If the gut can be used safely, enteral nutrition is the preferred feeding method for Crohn's disease patients needing nutritional support. The advantages of enteral nutrition are stimulatory effects on gastrointestinal structure and function and reduced cost when compared to parenteral feeding. If the gastrointestinal tract cannot be used safely, parenteral nutrition is recommended. The presence of Crohn's disease among prepubertal children produces serious growth failure which can be reduced or arrested by appropriate nutritional interventions. Significant numbers of Crohn's disease patients ar now receiving both enteral and parenteral nutrition in the home setting.     

Enteral versus Parenteral Nutrition as Adjunct Therapy in Acute Ulcerative Colitis

To ascertain the role of total enteral nutrition, compared with total parenteral nutrition, as adjunct therapy to steroids in patients with severe acute ulcerative colitis, a prospective randomized trial was conducted in 42 of such patients. Inclusion criteria were the persistence of a moderate or severe attack of the disease (Truelove's index) after 48 h on full steroid treatment (prednisone 1 mg/kg/day). Patients were randomized to receive polymeric total enteral nutrition or isocaloric, isonitrogenous total parenteral nutrition as the sole nutritional support. Remission rate and need for colectomy were similar in both groups. No significant changes in anthropometric parameters were observed in either nutritional group at the end of the study. Median increase in serum albumin was 16.7% (−0.5% to +30.4%) in the enteral feeding group, and only 4.6% (−12.0% to +13.7%) in the parenteral nutrition patients ( p = 0.019). Adverse effects related to artificial nutritional support were less frequent (9% vs. 35%, p = 0.046) and milder in enterally fed patients. Postoperative infections occurred more often with parenteral nutrition ( p = 0.028). These results suggest that total enteral nutrition is safe and nutritionally effective in severe attacks of ulcerative colitis. It is also cheaper and associated with fewer complications than parenteral nutrition. Total enteral nutrition should be regarded as the most suitable type of nutritional support in these patient     

The safe use of percutaneous gastrostomy for enteral nutrition in patients with Crohn's disease

OBJECTIVE: To determine the safety of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) tube placement for nutritional support and/or defined therapeutic enteral nutrition (TEN) in adult patients with Crohn's disease. DESIGN: A prospective, observational study of patients with Crohn's disease in whom PEG tubes were placed for nutritional support or TEN. SETTING: A specialist nutrition clinic at a gastroenterology tertiary referral centre in Harrow, UK. PARTICIPANTS: Nine patients with Crohn's disease. Seven patients had nutritional failure and were unable to tolerate nasogastric feeding, and two patients were recruited in whom TEN therapy for active disease was indicated. The age range was 21-52 years (median, 30 years). Five patients were female; all had had previous ileo-colonic resections, one had a gastro-enterostomy and one had a non-healing Crohn's-related gastric ulcer. INTERVENTIONS: PEG insertion (Fresenius, Frecka 9 Fr) was performed at endoscopy with intravenous sedation. Follow-up with tubes in situ was for a median of 37 weeks (range, 4-276 weeks), and for a further median of 80 weeks (range, 52-120 weeks) in those whose tubes have been removed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The level of disease activity, nutritional status/body mass index and any complications associated with PEG tube placement were recorded. RESULTS: PEG was achieved in all patients; the only complication was a minor superficial entry site infection. Five patients continue to use PEG feeding to good effect, including healing of the Crohn's-associated ulcer. One patient now eats normally having regained target weight, and three require parenteral nutrition, having failed to achieve nutritional sufficiency despite an optimal enteral regimen via the PEG. An adverse body image in one of these patients (an opiate abuser with a long psychiatric history) was probably contributory to PEG failure. There was no peristomal or fistulous disease. CONCLUSIONS: Although nutrition via PEG is not always successful, failures are of enteral nutrition, and not of the means. PEG use in selected patients with Crohn's disease appears safe and can prove a useful addition to therapeutic options.     

Total parenteral nutrition-related gastroenterological complications.

Total parenteral nutrition is a life saving therapy for patients with chronic gastrointestinal failure, being an effective method for supplying energy and nutrients when oral or enteral feeding is impossible or contraindicated. Clinical epidemiological data indicate that total parenteral nutrition may be associated with a variety of problems. Herein we reviewed data on the gastroenterological tract regarding: (i) total parenteral nutrition-related hepatobiliary complications; and (ii) total parenteral nutrition-related intestinal complications. In the first group, complications may vary from mildly elevated liver enzyme values to steatosis, steatohepatitis, cholestasis, fibrosis and cirrhosis. In particular, total parenteral nutrition is considered to be an absolute risk factor for the development of biliary sludge and gallstones and is often associated with hepatic steatosis and intrahepatic cholestasis. In general, the incidence of total parenteral nutrition-related hepatobiliary complications has been reported to be very high, ranging from 20 to 75% in adults. All these hepatobiliary complications are more likely to occur after long-term total parenteral nutrition, but they seem to be less frequent, and/or less severe in patients who are also receiving oral feeding. In addition, end-stage liver disease has been described in approximately 15-20% of patients receiving prolonged total parenteral nutrition. Total parenteral nutrition-related intestinal complications have not yet been adequately defined and described. Epidemiological studies intended to define the incidence of these complications, are still ongoing. Recent papers confirm that in both animals and humans, total parenteral nutrition-related intestinal complications are induced by the lack of enteral stimulation and are characterised by changes in the structure and function of the gut. Preventive suggestions and therapies for both these gastroenterological complications are reviewed and reported in the present review.     

Parenteral nutrition in Crohn's disease

A retrospective study of 50 consecutive patients admitted to hospital with Crohn's disease has been undertaken in order to assess the place of parenteral nutrition in our management of this disease. Following treatment, median weight, hemoglobin, and plasma albumin were the same in three treatment groups—parenteral nutrition (12), low-residue diet (9), and normal diet (29). Of 13 courses of parenteral nutrition used in 12 patients, 10 were for periods of less than 14 days (median four days). Most patients with nutritional problems associated with Crohn's disease can be treated successfully by one or other form of enteral nutrition. Parenteral nutrition, if required, is usually only necessary for periods of less than two weeks, to support patients over a critical period in their illness. Occasionally prolonged parenteral nutrition is required for short-bowel syndrome or advanced fistulous disease. In these cases, training the patient to infuse himself with nutrients at home has much to recommend it. Based on a paper presented at the 1 st European Conference on Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, Stockholm, September 2 to 5, 1979.     

Nutritional support in acute pancreatitis

Acute pancreatitis can present as a mild or severe disease. Most patients have a mild disease and recover without requiring nutritional support. Patients with severe acute pancreatitis may develop systemic inflammatory response syndrome and progress to multi-organ failure. These ill patients have high metabolism and protein catabolism. Hence, the nutritional management of these patients can be challenging. The aim of nutritional support is to meet the elevated metabolic demands as far as possible without stimulating pancreatic secretion and yet maintaining the gut integrity. The concept of pancreatic rest has evolved over the years. To date, there is a substantial scientific proof that enteral nutrition (EN) in comparison to parenteral nutrition significantly reduces infectious complications, surgical interventions and mortality in predicted severe acute pancreatitis. EN may be able to improve outcome in these patients if given early. In this review, we summarized the current knowledge on nutrition in acute pancreatitis and shared our local experience.     

Intense nutritional support in inflammatory bowel disease

The value of intense nutritional support in inflammatory bowel disease is still debated. Claims have been made that total enteral nutrition is as effective as total parenteral nutrition. In this review, the use of parenteral and enteral nutritional support as primary therapy in patients with inflammatory bowel disease has been critically evaluated. Most studies have been uncontrolled and nonrandomized with short-term follow-up. The literature does suggest, however, that intense nutritional support may have an adjunctive role to drug therapy in achieving remission in Crohn's disease, especially in corticosteroid-refractory patients. Nutritional support has a lesser role in chronic ulcertive colitis, except for assistance in pre- and postoperative management. The data do not support one variety of nutritional support over another, although enteral support should be used if possible, as it is less costly and potentially less complicated.     

胃肠道术后早期行营养支持的方案对比

目的比较胃肠道疾病患者手术治疗后早期行全肠内营养和肠外营养的疗效差异。方法回顾性分析2011年2月-2013年3月在陕西宝鸡市中医院普通外科接受手术治疗的胃肠道疾病患者的临床资料。入组患者根据营养支持方案分为全肠内营养支持组(TEN组)和全肠外营养组(TPN组)。比较两组患者的一般资料、营养状况、炎症指标、胃肠道功能恢复、肝功能改变、住院时间及费用等指标。结果本研究共纳入研究对象120例,其中TEN组63例,TPN组57例。术后第1天两组患者的炎性指标差异均无统计学意义(P0.05)。术后第7天时,TEN组患者的BMI、Alb、TP、PA水平均显著高于TPN组(P0.05);术后第7天时TEN组的CRP(t=2.805,P=0.006)和IL-6(t=2.464,P=0.015)水平显著低于TPN组;术后第7天时TPN组患者的ALT(t=2.073,P=0.04)和AST(t=5.187,P0.01)水平均高于TEN组;TPN组患者的排气时间、排便时间、住院时间和住院费用均明显高于TEN组(P均0.01)。结论早期肠内营养在改善患者机体营养状况、术后炎性指标下降速度、肝功能保护、胃肠道功能恢复、住院时间和住院费用方面均显著优于肠外营养。     

早期空肠内营养联合中药肠内滴注对重症急性胰腺炎患者肠麻痹的改善作用

目的:评价早期空肠内营养联合中药加味大承气颗粒肠内滴注治疗对改善重症急性胰腺炎患者肠麻痹的作用,探索重症急性胰腺炎的中西医结合治疗的新途径.方法:39例重症急性胰腺炎患者在常规治疗基础上,随机分成3组分别进行全胃肠外营养(PN组)、早期肠内营养(EN组)、肠内营养+中药大承气颗粒(EN+中药组)肠内滴注,观察患者腹痛腹胀缓解时间、胃肠道功能恢复(肠鸣音出现、肛门排气及排便)时间,并动态监测血淀粉酶、高敏C反应蛋白(CRP)、血浆肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α).结果:EN组、EN+中药组患者经治疗后腹痛腹胀症状均缓解或消失,胃肠道功能恢复正常.PN组12例中,有2例腹胀、肠麻痹持续加重,其中1例出现腹腔隔室综合征并发多脏器功能衰竭.EN组、EN+中药组在腹胀(d)、腹痛缓解时间(d)以及胃肠道功能恢复时间(d)均优于PN组(4.22±0.94,3.02±0.75vs5.72±1.55;4.66±1.14,3.14±0.62vs6.81±1.81;3.42±0.82,3.21±0.88vs6.04±1.67,均P<0.05),其中EN+中药组腹胀(d)、腹痛缓解时间(d)优于EN组(3.02±0.75vs4.22...     

Increased gut permeability to fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran after total parenteral nutrition in the rat

Sepsis with subsequent multiple organ failure is the commonest complication seen in the surgical intensive care unit today. A gut mucosal barrier dysfunction is assuming an increasingly important role as one possible explanation for the initiation of the septic process. It is known that the gut bacteria and endotoxins can, in the presence of a seemingly intact epithelium, translocate to extraintestinal sites, but the exact mechanism behind this process is not understood. In the present study we have approached this problem by testing the gut permeability to two macromolecules, bovine serum albumin (BSA) and fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-dextran, after 7 days of enteral or parenteral nutrition in the rat. The plasma values of FITC-dextran after 4 h of marker feeding showed a significant increase in gut permeability after parenteral but not after enteral nutrition as compared with the controls. The plasma values of BSA, however, did not show any significant change in any of the groups. Thus, parenteral nutrition, with the changes occurring in the gut mucosa, may be one of the etiologic co-factors behind a gut mucosal barrier dysfunction, eventually leading to absorption of noxious agents into the systemic circulation with subsequent multiple organ failure.     

肠内和肠外营养支持在老年重症肺炎病人中的应用

目的研究老年重症肺炎病人肠内和肠外营养支持效果。方法对呼吸重症监护病房38例老年重症肺炎病人的营养支持情况进行分析，其中肠内营养支持组20例，完全肠外营养支持组18例，摄入同等热量和同等氮量，营养支持时间〉10d。结果经肠内营养支持后，血红蛋白、白蛋白和血清前白蛋白明显升高（P〈0．05），免疫球蛋白显著升高（P〈0．01）；而完全肠外营养支持后，各指标差异无显著性。结论老年重症肺炎病人救治中，根据病人的不同情况，选择合适的营养支持方式，肠内营养有更好的代谢效应及营养效果，并能改善病人的免疫功能。     

早期肠内营养在重症急性胰腺炎治疗中的作用

目的探讨重症急性胰腺炎早期肠内营养的可行性、安全性及有效性。方法将我院40例重症急性胰腺炎病人，随机分成肠内营养组（EN）（20例）和对照组（20例），EN组在入院72h后在胃镜辅助下置空肠营养管，由肠外营养逐渐过渡到肠内营养，其余治疗与对照组相同。分别比较两组治疗后7天时的血浆白蛋白和血红蛋白水平，以及治疗前后血尿淀粉酶水平。结果所有病人对早期肠内营养都能耐。无胰腺炎复发，肠内营养对血尿淀粉酶无明显影响，EN组血浆白蛋白和血红蛋白水平较治疗前及对照组有显著提高，EN组有1例出现肺感染，2例并发胰腺假性囊肿。对照组有3例出现肺感染，2例并发胰腺假性囊肿。结论对重症急性胰腺炎进行早期肠内营养支持是可行、安全及有效的，能降低胰周及全身感染率，改善重症急性胰腺炎病人的营养状况。     

Treatment of active Crohn's disease in children using partial enteral nutrition with liquid formula: a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Total enteral nutrition (TEN) with a liquid formula can suppress gut inflammation and induce remission in active Crohn's disease. The mechanism is obscure. Studies have suggested that long term nutritional supplementation with a liquid formula (partial enteral nutrition (PEN)) may also suppress inflammation and prevent relapse. The aim of this study was to compare PEN with conventional TEN in active Crohn's disease. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Fifty children with a paediatric Crohn's disease activity index (PCDAI)>20 were randomly assigned to receive 50% (PEN) or 100% (TEN) of their energy requirement as elemental formula for six weeks. The PEN group was encouraged to eat an unrestricted diet while those receiving TEN were not allowed to eat. The primary outcome was achievement of remission (PCDAI<10). Secondary analyses of changes in erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), C reactive protein, albumin, and platelets were performed to look for evidence of anti-inflammatory effects. RESULTS: Remission rate with PEN was lower than with TEN (15% v 42%; p=0.035). Although PCDAI fell in both groups (p=0.001 for both), the reduction was greater with TEN (p=0.005). Moreover, the fall in PCDAI with PEN was due to symptomatic and nutritional benefits. With both treatments there were significant improvements in relation to abdominal pain, "sense of wellbeing", and nutritional status. However, only TEN led to a reduction in diarrhoea (p=0.02), an increase in haemoglobin and albumin, and a fall in platelets and ESR. CONCLUSIONS: TEN suppresses inflammation in active Crohn's disease but PEN does not. This suggests that long term nutritional supplementation, although beneficial to some patients, is unlikely to suppress inflammation and so prevent disease relapse.