Job stress in the law enforcement sector: comparing the linear,non‐linear and interaction effects of working conditions

This study addresses a gap in much of the research involving stress among high‐risk occupations by investigating the effects of linear, non‐linear and interaction models in a law enforcement organization that has undertaken a series of efficiency‐driven organizational reforms. The results of a survey involving 2085 police officers indicated that the demand–control–support model provided good utility in predicting an officer's satisfaction, commitment and well‐being. In particular, social support and job control were closely associated with all three outcome variables. Although the demand × control/support interactions were not identified in the data, there was some support for the curvilinear effects of job demands. The results have implications for the organizational conditions that need to be addressed in contemporary policing environments where new public management strategies have had widespread affects on the social and organizational context in which policing takes place. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A comparison of stress and job satisfaction in female and male GPs and consultants

Questionnaires assessing sources and levels of job satisfaction and occupational stress were completed by male and female general practitioners (N = 547) and consultant doctors (N = 449) in Scotland during a period of structural change in the health service. Job satisfaction and occupational stress scales from the Occupational Stress Inventory³⁰ were used to compare GPs and consultants, males and females, and to enable comparisons with other occupational groups. Consultants had greater occupational stress than GPs on three OSI subscales detailing managerial aspects of their work, and also had greater job satisfaction overall than GPs. GPs were more stressed by ‘intrinsic’ factors of the job itself. Females had less occupational stress and greater job satisfaction overall than males. Male GPs as a group had greatest job stress and least job satisfaction. Younger principals in general practice and consultants reported more occupational stress and less job satisfaction than older doctors. These findings have implications for health service management in terms of providing support and training in stress management for younger doctors and for female doctors. Comparisons with combined sample norms for mainly professional and managerial occupations showed that GPs and consultants in the Scottish sample had generally greater job satisfaction and less occupational stress than norms, which is contrary to expectations.     

The relationship of engagement,job satisfaction and turnover intentions

The current study explored engagement as a predictor of job satisfaction and turnover intentions controlling for burnout. A survey was administered to 227 students employed at least part‐time. Sequential regression was performed to explore whether engagement predicted job satisfaction and turnover intentions controlling for burnout. Results indicated that engagement was a significant predictor of job satisfaction and turnover intentions controlling for burnout. The current study is the first study to explore engagement's role in predicting job satisfaction and turnover intentions controlling for more traditional predictors. The study addresses concerns about the importance of the engagement construct in the literature. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Preference awareness education as stress management training for academic staff

This paper describes a response directed stress management intervention (SMI) in the form of a Jungian based preference awareness education (PAE). It uses the Insights System of personality types to increase awareness of behaviour and communication preferences of self and different others. Eighteen self‐recruited academic employees participated for 7 weeks and received feedback about work preferences and personality type. The aim was to reduce perceptions of stress and interpersonal stress and to increase feelings of job satisfaction and interpersonal satisfaction. The data were analysed using two‐tailed t‐tests. No significant findings were observed for the total sample after training, however, interesting results were found for certain sub‐sample groups. Extravert‐thinking types, reported decreased stress levels (p > 0.018), and participants suffering high stress/interpersonal stress pre‐PAE, reported decreased stress levels (p > 0.010–0.018). Participants suffering low job/interpersonal satisfaction pre‐PAE, reported increased job satisfaction (p > 0.015–0.016). These results suggest that individuals who report high levels of stress and dissatisfaction are most likely to benefit from this type of intervention. Future PAE research might: (a) use pilot studies to meet the intervention preferences of employees that are reluctant to participate in SMIs; (b) include a wait‐list control group; use: (c) a follow up education/measures; (d) and organizational level (stressor directed) SMIs at the same time as response directed initiatives. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Searching for a job: Cardiac responses to acute stress and the mediating role of threat appraisal in young people

Being unemployed and looking for a job has become a source of stress for many people in several European countries. However, little attention has been paid to the impact of this stressful situation on the individuals' psychophysiological stress responses. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of being an unemployed job seeker on cognitive threat appraisal and cardiac responses to a psychosocial stressor. We exposed a group of unemployed job seekers (N = 42) and a matched group of unemployed non‐job seekers (N = 40) to a standardized social stressor in form of job interview, the Trier Social Stress Test. Our results showed that unemployed job seekers manifest lower cardiac responses, along with a lower cognitive threat appraisal, compared to non‐job seekers. Moreover, we observed a full mediating role of cognitive threat appraisal on the relationship between being an unemployed job seeker and cardiac responses to stress. These findings reveal that being unemployed and looking for a job has an effect on physiological responses to acute stress, as well as the importance of psychological process related to the situation. These responses might lead to negative health and motivational consequences. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

A sample validation of the Adolescent Stress Questionnaire (ASQ) in New Zealand

The Adolescent Stress Questionnaire (ASQ) is a 56‐item scale measuring stress in 10 domains. The scale has been tested in a number of countries worldwide with mixed support. The current study tested the factor structure, construct validity, and reliability in a sample (n = 1,601) comprising a general population of adolescents in New Zealand. Support was found for the 10‐factor structure with adequate internal consistency as well as strong factorial invariance between male and female participants. Significant inverse correlations were found between all ASQ domains and both life satisfaction and perceived academic achievement. Most ASQ domains revealed gender differences, with female participants reporting greater stress than males. Toward a nonbinary perspective of gender, gender‐neutral participants reported greater stress than males and females in certain stress domains. Results based on regression analyses indicate that nonacademic ASQ domains were generally related to life satisfaction whereas academic ASQ domains were related to perceived academic achievement. Positive and negative interaction effects were observed between gender and ASQ domains on life satisfaction and academic achievement. Overall, the current results indicate that the ASQ appears to be a reliable, valid instrument for adolescent stress in New Zealand with relevance to perceived life satisfaction and achievement.     

Overload,and Cutbacks,and Freezes,Oh My! The Relative Effects of the Recession‐Related Stressors on Employee Strain and Job Satisfaction

Across the globe, economic fluctuations have taken their toll on both organizations and employees, particularly during sustained recessions. Surprisingly, little research, however, has directly investigated the effects of recessions on employees. As such, the goal of the current study was to investigate the effects of specific recession‐related stressors on employee outcomes (strain and satisfaction). We investigated an archival data set of 7666 individuals collected as part of the Workplace Employment Relations Study for relations among recession‐related stressors with strain and job satisfaction variables. We found that recession‐related stressors were significantly related to both strain and satisfaction. More specifically, certain recession‐related stressors (e.g. increased workload and reorganization of work) were more strongly related to strain and satisfaction than others. These results imply the need for greater attention to stress management strategies aimed at helping both employees and their organizations cope with the human costs of economic recessions. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Support for the Multidimensional Adolescent Stress Questionnaire in a Sample of Adolescents in the United Kingdom

Adolescence is a time of physical, social and emotional development, and this development can be accompanied by feelings of stress. The Adolescent Stress Questionnaire is a 56‐item scale measuring stress in 10 domains. Developed in Australia, the scale has been translated, and its reliability and validity have been tested in a number of countries across Europe, where the 10‐factor, 56‐item version of the scale has received little support. The present study tested the factor structure, construct validity and reliability in a sample (n = 610) of adolescents in the United Kingdom. Support was found for the 10‐factor, 56‐item version of the scale, and correlations with self‐concept measures, sex scores on stress factors and Cronbach's α‐values, suggesting that the scale may be a viable assessment tool for adolescent stress. Results for alcohol‐specific analyses support the domain‐specific nature of the scale. Future work may seek to investigate the stability of age‐specific stress domains (e.g. the stress of Emerging Adult Responsibility) in samples that include younger adolescents. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Job Demands × Job Control Interaction Effects: Do Occupation‐specific Job Demands Increase their Occurrence?

Despite evidence that the accurate assessment of occupational health should include measures of both generic job demands and occupation‐specific job demands, most research includes only generic job demands. The inclusion of more focused occupation‐specific job demands is suggested to explain a larger proportion of variance for both direct effects and job demands × job control/support interaction effects, as compared with the inclusion of generic job demands. This research tested these two propositions via a self‐report survey assessing key psychological job characteristics administered twice to a sample of correctional workers (N = 746). The research clearly identified that the assessment of correctional‐specific job demands (CJD) was more strongly associated with job satisfaction, work engagement, turnover intentions and psychological strain, as compared with an assessment of generic job demands. However, the CJD did not produce a greater proportion of significant job demands × job control/support interaction effects, as compared with the generic job demands measure. The results thereby provide further support for the acknowledged ‘elusiveness’ of these theoretical interactions. Overall, however, the results did support the inclusion of occupation‐specific measures of job demands for the accurate assessment of the health and job performance of high‐risk workers. The implications for theoretical discussions that describe how high job demands are moderated by job resources are discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Job stress and employee well‐being: a cross‐cultural empirical study

This study examined the relationship between job stress and employee well‐being among teachers in Canada and Pakistan. Job stress was operationalized in terms of perceived experiences at the job which were chronic in nature. Employee well‐being was operationalized in terms of burnout and its three dimensions (emotional exhaustion, lack of accomplishment and depersonalization), intrinsic motivation, job involvement and turnover intention. Data were collected by means of a structured questionnaire from teachers in metropolitan cities in Canada (N=420) and Pakistan (N=335). Pearson correlation and moderated multiple regression were used to analyze the data. In both countries, job stress was significantly related to a number of well‐being variables. Moderated multiple regression did not support the role of gender as a moderator of the stress–well‐being relationship. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Job stress and satisfaction among nurses: individual differences

In a study involving 276 nurses in a large hospital in Northern Ireland, a comprehensive set of questionnaires was administered to assess multiple job‐related variables. Nurses in general appeared to display high scores on the stresses related to confidence and competency in role, home–work conflict, and organisational involvement (subscales which are themselves closely associated with demands in social interaction at work). These are stresses which were related to psychological well‐being. There were no gender differences on occupational stress or the health outcome variables. Age did emerge as significantly related to total stress and mental health (older nurses reporting more stress, and the younger nurses experiencing better psychological health). Grade of nursing was unrelated to job stress and outcome health variables, including work satisfaction. Although no differences were observed between wards/specialism and stress, differences were revealed along satisfaction, with maternity nurses (and intensive care nurses) displaying the highest level of satisfaction at work, and surgical (and medical) nurses showing the lowest. Finally, Type A emerged as a significant determinant of physical health, in contrast to internal locus of control, which was more related to mental health, (lower) occupational stress, and job satisfaction. No significant Type A×locus of control interactions were observed. The implications of these findings for nursing care are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Differential Reactivity and the Within‐person Job Stressor–Satisfaction Relationship

An experience sampling methodology was used to study the direct and conditional within‐person relationship between job stressors and job satisfaction. One hundred and one full‐time administrative staff completed momentary measures of job stressors and job satisfaction three times a day on six different workdays over a 3‐week period (N = 1818 observations). Multilevel random coefficients models were specified, and the results suggest that within‐person stressors are negatively related to within‐person job satisfaction. These results stand when controlling for the effects of time, demographics, work characteristics, baseline levels of job stressors and satisfaction, and between‐person effects of job stressors. Furthermore, consistent with the differential reactivity model, the results suggest that the observed within‐person stressors–satisfaction relationship is conditional upon locus of control and positive affect. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Job stress and health profiles of smokers,ex-smokers and non-smokers

This article provides an empirical perspective on the relationship between work stress and job satisfaction for physical well-being in a senior police population when physical factors such as smoking are considered. The subjects were 533 superintending police officers, predominantly male ( > 97 per cent), from Great Britain. Forty-two per cent of senior police officers were non-smokers (N = 220) and an almost equal proportion, 40 per cent (N = 209), were ex-smokers, the remaining 18 per cent (N = 93) being regular smokers (12 per cent smoking in excess of 10 cigarettes per day). The Occupational Stress Indicator was used as the measure of overall stress levels and its components. Mean scores of smokers, ex-smokers and non-smokers on the OSI were compared using univariate F-tests and discriminant function analysis. Smokers per se were inclined to exhibit higher job stress scores than either ex-smokers or non-smokers and report the worst physical health scores. The non-smokers yielded the greatest level of work satisfaction and psychological well-being in contrast to the ex-smokers, who were most distressed psychologically and least satisfied with their work. Group profiles were not statistically different from each other with the exception of the physical health and one ‘coping’ subscale. Job-related pressure was predictive of lack of job satisfaction (F)1,432) = 40.09, p < 0.001) and both physical and mental ill-health F(4,461) = 41.05, p < 0.001 and F(4,454) = 69.76, p < 0.001 respectively) across the groups of non-smokers, ex-smokers and the three smoking groups. There was no evidence of a direct relationship between smoking behaviour and job satisfaction, physical and mental health. A comparison showed the average number of days off from work to be lowest for non-smokers (M 2.37, SD 8.25) followed by ex-smokers (M 3.4, SD 15.91) and then smokers (M 4.94, SD 17.33). The variance of these groups increased but the mean differences did not reach statistical significance (F(2,519) = 1.24, p > 0.05). The results of this study argue for tentative links between stress, smoking, absenteeism and other health factors in this senior police occupational sample. They also lend support for the utility of a generalized measure of stress components in medical and occupational settings.     

The role of perceived control in the relationship between job insecurity and psychosocial outcomes: moderator or mediator?

The aim of the current study was to address the intervening role of perceived control in the job insecurity–strain relationship. Two alternatives were investigated: (1) perceived control as a buffer of the relationship between job insecurity and outcome variables (i.e. job satisfaction, organizational commitment, psychological distress and turnover intentions); and (2) perceived control as a mediator of the relationship between job insecurity and the outcomes. Cross‐sectional data of 211 employees were used to test the hypotheses. The results showed that perceived control did not buffer the relationship between job insecurity, and job satisfaction, organizational commitment, psychological distress and turnover intentions. However, perceived control was found to partially mediate the association between job insecurity and these outcomes. The results are explained using the cognitive theory of stress and coping of Lazarus and Folkman, and suggest that job insecurity is stressful because it decreases the experience of control. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Role of Trait and State Perfectionism in Psychological Detachment From Daily Job Demands

Psychological detachment has been proposed to be a mediator of the relations between an individual's responses to stressful work‐related experiences and mid‐ and long‐term health. However, the number of studies that have specifically examined the role that personal characteristics play in these associations is considerably small. One personal characteristic that might specifically interfere with psychological detachment is perfectionism, which has been considered an important vulnerability factor for the development of psychological disorders. Hence, the goal of this registered report was to extend research on psychological detachment by introducing trait and state perfectionism as moderators of the aforementioned relations. We conducted an experience sampling study with three measurement occasions per day over the course of 3 working weeks (N = 158 employees; M_age = 41.6; 67% women). Multilevel path models showed that perfectionistic concerns consistently determined strain responses at between‐ and within‐levels of analyses even after the effects of job demands (i.e., unfinished tasks and role ambiguity) and detachment were accounted for. However, we found no evidence for the proposed moderation effects. The theoretical implications for the understanding of the processes proposed in the stressor‐detachment model are discussed.     

The Demand‐Induced Strain Compensation Questionnaire: A Cross‐national Validation Study

The demand‐induced strain compensation model is a theoretical job stress model that has been tested in different kinds of empirical study in several countries. To measure key concepts in the model (job demands and job resources), the demand‐induced strain compensation questionnaire (DISQ) was developed and has been used in many empirical studies. However, most studies neither focused on the psychometric properties of the DISQ nor tested it cross‐nationally. In this study, we examined the psychometric properties of the DISQ tested on Italian (n = 422) and Dutch (n = 1629) employees. Results indicated that the six‐factor model, consisting of cognitive, emotional and physical job demands as well as cognitive, emotional and physical job resources, provided a better fit to the data than an alternative two‐factor model (demands and resources only). Findings were invariant across Italian and Dutch samples. Internal consistencies were satisfactory. Additionally, the six dimensions of DISQ were found to be meaningfully related to employee active learning behaviour, emotional exhaustion and musculoskeletal disorders. Results suggest the DISQ questionnaire is a valid and reliable instrument to measure the proposed dimensions of job demands and job resources in both Italian and Dutch work contexts. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Job stress related to glyco‐lipid allostatic load,adiponectin and visfatin

Job stress has been associated with an increased risk for glyco‐lipid metabolic dysfunction, which can lead to coronary artery disease, diabetes and other adverse health outcomes. We undertook a cross‐sectional study to evaluate the relationship between job stress and glyco‐lipid metabolic change in healthy industrial employees in China. Volunteers (n = 504) were investigated during the routine annual health examination period between June and August 2006. Job stress was assessed by the 22‐item Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ), which included three dimensions: job control, job demand and social support. Glyco‐lipid metabolic status was determined by the glyco‐lipid allostatic load based on the allostasis paradigm and the concept of allostatic load. There were 11 parameters comprising the glyco‐lipid allostatic load: body mass index (BMI); waist to hip ratio (WHR); high‐density lipoprotein (HDL); low‐density lipoprotein (LDL); total cholesterol (TC); triglyceride (TG); glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA_1C); homeostasis model assessment‐insulin resistance (HOMA‐IR); HOMA‐β‐cell function; plasma concentrations of adiponectin; and visfatin. Score points were given for values in the high‐risk quartile (0–11). Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed that BMI, WHR, TG, adiponectin, visfatin and glyco‐lipid allostatic load were significantly different between high and low job stress groups after being adjusted for demographic characteristics and health‐related behaviour. Plasma adiponectin levels were negatively correlated with BMI, WHR, HbA_1C, TG, IR and visfatin, and positively correlated with HDL. Plasma concentration of visfatin was positively correlated with BMI, WHR, TC and IR. Multiple stepwise linear regression analysis indicated that job control was significantly related to glyco‐lipid allostatic load, plasma adiponectin concentration and plasma visfatin concentration after controlling for demographic characteristics and health‐related behaviour. In conclusion, we found association between job stress, job control and the glyco‐lipid metabolism summary score. Plasma adiponectin and visfatin concentrations related with job stress and job control. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Background Stress Inventory: Developing a Measure of Understudied Stress

Background stress is an understudied source of stress that involves both ambient stress and daily hassles upon which new stressors are superimposed. To date, an accurate measure of the background stress construct has not been available. We developed the Background Stress Inventory, a 25‐item self‐report measure that asks respondents to indicate how distressed they have felt over the past month and the majority of the past year across five domains: financial, occupation, environment, health and social. Seven hundred seventy‐two participants completed the paper‐and‐pencil measure; the sample was randomly split into two separate subsamples for analyses. Exploratory factor analysis suggested five factors corresponding to these domains, and confirmatory factor analysis showed acceptable global fit (X²(255) = 456.47, comparative fit index = 0.94, root mean square error of approximation = 0.045). Cronbach's alpha (0.89) indicated good internal reliability. Construct validity analyses showed significant positive relationships with measures of perceived stressfulness (r = 0.62) and daily hassles (0.41), p's < 0.01. Depressive symptoms (0.62) and basal blood pressure (0.21) were both significantly associated with background stress, p's < 0.01. The importance of the proposed measure is reflected in the limited research base on the impact of background stress. Systematic investigation of this measure will provide insight into this understudied form of chronic stress and its potential influence on both psychological and physical endpoints. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Job stress,job satisfaction and stress‐related illnesses among South African educators

The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between self‐reported job stress and job satisfaction, and the prevalence of stress‐related illnesses and risk factors among educators. A cross‐sectional survey was conducted in a representative sample of 21,307 educators from public schools in South Africa. Results indicate that the prevalence of stress‐related illnesses were 15.6 per cent for hypertension, 9.1 per cent stomach ulcer, 4.5 per cent diabetes, 3.3 per cent minor mental distress, 3.1 per cent major mental distress and 3.5 per cent asthma. The study found considerably high stress levels among educators. Job stress and lack of job satisfaction were associated with most stress‐related illnesses (hypertension, heart disease, stomach ulcer, asthma, mental distress, tobacco and alcohol misuse). From three components of the demand‐control model, two, namely work stress from teaching methods and low peer support, were related to hypertension but not to heart disease. The components of the effort‐reward model of low socio‐economic status and lack of career advancement were both not related to heart disease, and only lack of career advancement was inversely related to hypertension. Most components assessed here of the demand‐control model (including stress with teaching methods and educational system and low peer support) and effort‐reward model (including job insecurity and lack of career advancement) were related to stomach ulcer and mental distress. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.