Assessment of the left atrial appendage mechanical function by three-dimensional echocardiography.

AIMS: We evaluated the feasibility of three-dimensional echocardiography, in the assessment of left atrial appendage (LAA) function. METHODS AND RESULTS: Forty-five patients underwent multiplane transoesophageal echocardiography. In addition to Doppler and two-dimensional echocardiography, data for three-dimensional echocardiography reconstruction were obtained during transoesophageal echocardiography. Left atrial appendage ejection fraction based on three-dimensional echocardiography volume measurements (EFv) and two-dimensional echocardiography area measurements (EFa), coupled with other echocardiographic data, were related to left atrial appendage late peak emptying velocity, a frequently used indicator of left atrial appendage function. Multiple regression analysis has revealed a significant association of peak emptying velocity with EFv (P<0.0001), spontaneous echocardiographic contrast (P=0.001), tricuspid regurgitation (P=0.03) and left ventricular hypertrophy (P=0.05). No significant relation was observed between peak emptying velocity and EFa, presence or absence of atrial fibrillation, left ventricular dysfunction, mitral stenosis and insufficiency, left atrial dilatation, pulmonary venous peak systolic, diastolic and peak reverse flow velocity at atrial contraction as well as left atrial appendage volumes derived from two-dimensional echocardiography and three-dimensional echocardiography. In a simple linear correlation, the degree of association between peak emptying velocity and EFv was higher as between peak emptying velocity and EFa (r=0.7 vs 0.4, both P<0.001). Observer variabilities for calculating EFv were considerably lower than for two-dimensional echocardiography derived EFa. Ejection fractions determined by two-dimensional echocardiography area measurements at 45 degrees, 90 degrees and 135 degrees cutplane angulations were related to EFv only at 135 degrees. CONCLUSIONS: Left atrial appendage ejection fraction calculation by three-dimensional echocardiography is feasible, more accurate than by two-dimensional echocardiography and has lower observer variability. Furthermore, an optimal cutplane angulation of the left atrial appendage view at 135 degrees has been demonstrated.     

Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography for rheumatic mitral valve stenosis evaluation: an accurate and novel approach

OBJECTIVES: Our aim was to assess which echo-Doppler method has the best agreement with the mitral valve area (MVA) invasively evaluated by the Gorlin's formula. We also evaluated the feasibility and reproducibility of real-time three-dimensional echocardiography (RT3D) for the estimation of MVA and the Wilkins score in patients with rheumatic mitral stenosis (RMVS). BACKGROUND: Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography is a novel technique that allows us to visualize the mitral valvular anatomy in any desired plane orientation. The usefulness and accuracy of this technique for evaluating RMVS has not been established. METHODS: We studied a series of consecutive patients with RMVS from two tertiary care hospitals. Mitral valvular area was determined by conventional echo-Doppler methods and by RT3D, and their results were compared with those obtained invasively. Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography planimetry and mitral score were measured by two independent observers and then repeated by one of them. RESULTS: Eighty patients with RMVS comprised our study group (76 women; 50.6 +/- 13.9 years). Compared with all other echo-Doppler methods, RT3D had the best agreement with the invasively determined MVA (average difference between both methods and limits of agreement: 0.08 cm(2) [-0.48 to 0.6]). Interobserver variability was as good for RT3D (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.90) as for pressure half-time (PHT) (ICC = 0.95). For PHT and RT3D, the intraobserver variability was similar (ICC 0.92 and 0.96, respectively). Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography valvular score evaluation showed a better interobserver agreement with RT3D than with 2D echocardiography. CONCLUSIONS: Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography is a feasible, accurate, and highly reproducible technique for assessing MVA in patients with RMVS. Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography has the best agreement with invasive methods.     

Comparison of two- and three-dimensional echocardiography with cineventriculography for measurement of left ventricular volume in patients

Objectives. We compared two- and three-dimensional echocardiopaphy with cineventriculography for measurement of left ventricular volume in patients.Background. Three-dimensional echocardiography has been shown to be highly accurate and superior to two-dimensional echocardiography in measuring left ventricular volume in vitro. However, there has been little comparison of the two methods in patients.Methods. Two- and three-dimensional echocardiography were performed in 35 patients (mean age 48 years) 1 to 3 h before left ventricular cineventriculography. Three-dimensional echocardiography used an acoustic spatial locator to register image position. Volume was computed using a polyhedral surface reconstruction algorithm based on multiple nonparallel, unevenly spaced short-axis cross sections. Two-dimensional echocardiography used the apical biplane summation of disks method. Single-plane cineventriculographic volumes were calculated using the summation of disks algorithm. The methods were compared by linear regression and a limits of agreement analysis. For the latter, systematic error was assessed by the mean of the deferences (cineventriculography minus echocardiography), and the limits of agreement were defined as ±2 SD from the mean difference.Results. Three-dimensional echocardiographic volumes demonstrated excellent correlation (end-diastole r = 0.97; end-systole r = 0.98) with cineventriculography. Standard errors of the estimate were approximately half those of two-dimensional echocardiography (end-diastole ±11.0 ml vs. ±21.5 ml; end-systole ±10.2 ml vs. ±17.0 ml). By limits of agreement analysis the end-diastolic mean diferences for two- and three-dimensional echocardiography were 21.1 and 12.9 ml, respectively. The limits of agreement (±2 SD) were ±54.0 and ±24.8 ml, respectively. For end-systole, comparable improvement was obtained by three-dimensional echocardiography. Results for ejection fraction by the two methods were similar.Conclusions. Three-dimensional echocardiography correlates highly with cineventriculography for estimation of ventricular volumes in patients and has approximately half the variability of two-dimensional echocardiography for these measurements. On the basis of this study, three-dimensional echocardiography is the preferred echocardiographic technique for measurement of ventricular volume. Three-dimensional echocardiography is equivalent to two-dimensional echocardiography for measuring ejection fraction.     

Influence of atrial septal defect anatomy in patient selection and assessment of closure with the Cardioseal device; a three-dimensional transoesophageal echocardiographic reconstruction.

BACKGROUND: The maximal diameter of the defect and the dimensions of the septal rims are essential parameters for the selection of optimal cases for device closure. Neither two-dimensional echocardiography nor balloon catheter sizing provide optimal data. Unique three-dimensional echocardiography might help to improve patient selection and assessment of results. Our aim was to optimize transcatheter closure of secundum type atrial septal defects using three-dimensional echocardiography. METHODS: Sixteen patients enrolled in a protocol for atrial septal defect transcatheter closure with the Cardioseal device underwent transoesophageal two- and three-dimensional echocardiography. Maximal diameter and tissue rim of the atrial septal defect were measured and compared by both methods. In the 12 patients selected for closure, the balloon stretched diameter was compared to three-dimensional echocardiography measurements. Device placement was assessed by two- and three-dimensional echocardiography. RESULTS: The shape of the atrial septal defect appeared variable on three-dimensional views: round in nine patients but complex (oval, raquet-shaped, multiple) in seven patients. The surface area of the atrial septal defect varied by 68+/-15% during the cardiac cycle. The correlation between atrial septal defect maximal diameters measured by two-dimensional transoesophageal echocardiography and three-dimensional echocardiography was better in round defects (y=1 x +1.6, r=0.99) than in complex defects (y=0.7 x -0.5, r=0.88). The antero-superior rim could only be properly assessed by three-dimensional echocardiography. In 12 patients the correlation between stretched diameter and three-dimensional echocardiography maximal diameter was poor (y=0.3 x +13, r=0.41). After placement of the device, three-dimensional echocardiography enabled the mechanism of residual shunting to be understood in three patients. CONCLUSIONS: Dynamic three-dimensional echocardiography enhances the understanding of the anatomy and physiology of atrial septal defect and should be an important process in future initiatives for device closures.     

Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography in assessment of heart disease

Echocardiography has progressed at an impressive pace in the last decade. A plethora of new techniques, including tissue-Doppler imaging, harmonic imaging, contrast echocardiography, digital-stress echocardiography, and three-dimensional (3-D) echocardiography, have altered our diagnostic strategies for managing patients with heart disease. Until recently, 3-D echocardiography was looked upon as a time-consuming and tedious procedure, making it more a research interest than a diagnostic tool. The introduction of real-time three-dimensional (RT-3-D) echocardiography has made possible dynamic diagnostic/therapeutic assessments while the procedure is performed. At The University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston, Texas, our more than 2 years of experience with RT-3-D suggests that this technique will play an important role in diagnosing and managing patients with heart disease.     

Interventional three-dimensional echocardiography: using real-time three-dimensional echocardiography to guide and evaluate intracardiac therapies

Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography (RT3DE) already has demonstrated its utility in guiding intracardiac procedures. This article discusses the advantages RT3DE has over the previous standard of 2D echocardiography.     

左心声学造影诊断经皮冠状动脉介入术后冠脉再狭窄的价值

目的 评价冠心病患者经皮冠状动脉介入（percutaneous coronary intervention,PCI）治疗术后随访中运用左心声学造影诊断冠脉再狭窄的价值。 方法 选择我院2017年7月至2018年10月纳入的105例冠心病患者作为研究对象,均在我院实施PCI术后,随访中选择左心声学造影检查,同期还做二维超声心动图和实时三维超声心动图作为检测方法的对照,计算和比较相应的评价真实性的指标（灵敏度、特异度和准确度）进行定量评价。 结果 左心声学造影诊断PCI术后冠脉再狭窄的灵敏度显著高于二维超声心动图（78% vs 43%,P < 0.05）,虽也高于实时三维超声心动图,但差异未达到显著水平(78% vs 70%);左心声学造影诊断冠脉再狭窄的特异度显著高于二维超声心动图（98% vs 90%,P < 0.05）和实时三维超声心动图（98% vs 85%,P < 0.01）,但二维超声心动图的特异度与实时三维超声心动图差异无统计学意义;左心声学造影的准确度显著高于二维超声心动图和实时三维超声心动图（93% vs 80%,82%,均P < 0.01）,但二维超声心动图和实时三维超声心动图的准确度差异无统计学意义。 结论 左心声学造影用于诊断冠心病PCI术后再狭窄,可显著提升诊断的灵敏度、特异度和准确度。     

实时三维超声心动图评估心肌重量的研究

实时三维超声心动图(RT-3DE)是新近发展起来的技术,较M型超声、二维超声心动图及传统的重建三维更快速地获得直观精确的定量信息,RT-3DE测量心肌重量对心血管疾病诊断、治疗及预后有重要意义。     

Initial experience with live/real time three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography

A new tool has been recently introduced to the echocardiography armamentarium, live/real time three-dimensional (3D) transesophageal echocardiography (TEE). In these cases, we describe our initial experience in 13 patients studied intraoperatively and in the echocardiography suite. This important technology promises improved anatomic definition, diagnostic confidence, and novel views of the complicated cardiovascular pathology encountered in common clinical practice.     

Three-dimensional echocardiography of normal and pathologic mitral valve: A comparison with two-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography

Objectives. This study was done to ascertain whether three-dimensional echocardiography can facilitate the diagnosis of mitral valve abnormalities.Background. The value of the additional information provided by three-dimensional echocardiography compared with two-dimensional multiplane transesophageal echocardiography for evaluation of the mitral valve apparatus has not been assessed.Methods. Thirty patients with a variety of mitral valve pathologies (stenosis in 8, insufficiency in 12, prostheses in 10) and 20 subjects with a normal mitral valve were studied. Images were acquired using the rotational technique (every 2°), with electrocardiographic and respiratory gating. From the three-dimensional data sets, cut planes were selected and presented in both two-dimensional format (anyplane echocardiography) and volume-rendered dynamic display. The data were compared with the original multiplane two-dimensional images. Different features of the mitral valve apparatus were defined and graded by three observers for clarity of visualization and confidence of interpretation as 1) inadequate, 2) sufficient, or 3) excellent.Results. All the techniques provided good visualization of the mitral valve (mean global scores ± SD for multiplane, anyplane and volume-rendered echocardiography were 2.22 ± 0.34. 2.24 ± 0.26 and 2.30 ± 0.25, respectively). With volume-rendered echocardiography, the mitral valve apparatus was scored higher in pathologic than in normal conditions (2.38 ± 0.24 vs. 2.16 ± 0.21, p < 0.002). The spatial relationships between the mitral valve and when structures. Reaflet mobility, commissures and orifice were scored higher by volume-rendered echocardiography. Prostheses were evaluated equally well by the three methods. Multiplane and anyplane echocardiography were superior for the evaluation of leaflet thickness, subvalvular apparatus and annulus.Conclusions. Transesophageal three-dimensional echocardiography facilitates imaging of some features of the mitral valve apparatus and provides additional information for comprehensive assessment of mitral valve abnormalities.     

Three-dimensional echocardiography in mitral valve disease.

Three-dimensional echocardiography offers great promise for improving the understanding of the mitral valve anatomy, function, and pathology. It may have important implications for medical or surgical management of different mitral valve disease. In this article we provide an overview of the three-dimensional anatomy of the mitral valve. Based on the studies using three-dimensional echocardiography we describe the topography of the mitral valve, its nonplanarity as well as dynamics of the mitral annulus. Furthermore, we review the use of three-dimensional echocardiography in the evaluation of different mitral valve disease. Three-dimensional echocardiography has become a new clinical standard in the assessment of the severity of mitral stenosis by means of accurate mitral valve area measurement. Also, unconventional indices, like the geometry and mitral valve volume may be assessed by three-dimensional echocardiography. It is a very suitable technique for monitoring the efficacy and complications of percutaneous mitral valvuloplasty. Three-dimensional echocardiography allows accurate identification and quantification of prolapse of individual segments of the mitral valve leaflets. Three-dimensional color flow imaging makes echocardiography an accurate method also in the assessment of mitral regurgitation severity. Finally, we outline three-dimensional echocardiography as a potentially useful guide for a surgeon, particularly in mitral valve repair.     

Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography using a novel matrix array transducer

Three-dimensional echocardiography has multiple advantages over two-dimensional echocardiography, such as accurate left ventricular quantification and improved spatial relationships. However, clinical use of three-dimensional echocardiography has been impeded by tedious and time-consuming methods for data acquisition and post-processing. A newly developed matrix array probe, which allows real-time three-dimensional imaging with instantaneous on-line volume-rendered reconstruction, direct manipulation of thresholding, and cut planes on the ultrasound unit may overcome the aforementioned limitations. This report will review current methods of three-dimensional data acquisition, emphasizing the real-time methods and clinical applications of the new matrix array probe.     

Evaluation of the electrocardiographic criteria for left ventricular hypertrophy with use of three-dimensional echocardiography

BACKGROUND: Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is a common condition that carries an increased risk of cardiovascular events. Use of ECG in detection of LVH is limited because of the reported low sensitivity. Conventional echocardiographic techniques used as the standard for estimating left ventricular (LV) mass have limitations related to the position of the image plane and shape of the ventricle. Three-dimensional echocardiography is free of these limitations and therefore is more accurate. We hypothesized that accuracy of ECG criteria for LVH would improve when LV mass was assessed by three-dimensional echocardiography. RESULTS: For most of the criteria, sensitivity, specificity and accuracy improved when LV mass was assessed by three-dimensional echocardiography. Two-dimensional echocardiography significantly overestimated LV mass as compared with the three-dimensional method. CONCLUSIONS: Sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of the ECG criteria improved when LV mass was estimated by three-dimensional echocardiography. This improvement may be attributed at least in part to superior accuracy of three-dimensional measurements.     

药物负荷三维超声心动图检测存活心肌的价值

目的：利用药物负荷三维超声心动图试验,检测心肌梗死患者的存活心肌。方法：50例心肌梗死患者行冠脉血液灌注重建术（PCI,CABG）,在术前行三维超声心动图检查和多巴酚丁胺负荷超声试验,根据术后一个月复查心脏超声结果左室整体EF较术前改善〉5％与否分为存活心肌组（41例）和无存活心肌组（9例）,三维超声检查时进行左室三维重建,将左心室分为17个节段,比较负荷试验前后左室整体射血分数（EF）及左室壁各节段的射血分数EF值。结果：术后1月多巴酚丁胺负荷三维超声试验：与负荷试验前比较,存活心肌组于负荷试验时左室整体EF值[（40±13）％比（53±15）％,P〈0．05],梗死区相关节段EF值[（33±12）％比（50±18）％,P〈0．01]均明显改善;无存活心肌组负荷试验前后左室整体EF值,梗死区相关节段EF值无明显改善（P均〉0．05）。心梗患者于冠脉术后1月复查三维超声心动图,存活心肌组左室整体EF值术前、术后为（40±13）％,（49±15）％,改善20％,无存活心肌组EF值术前、术后为（36±8）％,（38±10）％,改善≤5％。结论：多巴酚丁胺负荷三维超声心动图检查对心肌梗死患者存活心肌的检测客观、可定量,有一定的临床应用价值。     

Usefulness of transthoracic freehand three-dimensional echocardiography for the evaluation of mitral valve prolapse

BACKGROUND: Two-dimensional (2D) echocardiography is routinely used in evaluating patients with mitral valve prolapse but requires a systematic examination for accurate assessment of the involved lesion of mitral valve prolapse, because the sonographer is required to mentally reconstruct two-dimensional images into three dimensions. Recently, freehand three-dimensional (3D) echocardiography has been introduced in the clinical setting for three-dimensional visualization of the mitral valve apparatus. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the accuracy of the freehand 3D echocardiography system in assessing the involved lesion in patients with mitral valve prolapse. METHODS: This study consisted of 25 consecutive patients (15 men, 10 women, mean age 55 +/- 17 years) with mitral valve prolapse who were scheduled for 3D echocardiography. Mitral valve was reconstructed in the view from the left atrium (surgeon's view) by 3D echocardiography. The location of the involved lesion in mitral valve was classified as the medial, middle and lateral portions of the anterior leaflet, and the medial, middle and lateral scallops of the posterior leaflet, respectively. The results by 3D echocardiography were compared with those of 2D echocardiography as the clinical standard. RESULTS: An adequate three-dimensional display of the entire mitral valve for analysis of the involved lesion could be reconstructed in all 25 patients (feasibility 100%). The sensitivity of 3D echocardiography for detecting the lesions at the medial, middle and lateral portions of the anterior leaflet was 80%, 100% and 75%, and the medial, middle and lateral scallops of the posterior leaflet was 100%, 100% and 0%, respectively. The specificities were 100% at all locations in the mitral valve. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that freehand 3D echocardiography is useful for assessment of the involved lesion of the mitral valve in patients with mitral valve prolapse.     

Live/Real time three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiographic assessment of aortopulmonary window

Aortopulmonary (AP) window is an extremely rare congenital anomaly involving a communication between the ascending aorta and pulmonary artery. Two-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography is traditionally used in the diagnosis but has limitations. We report the usefulness of three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography in the assessment of AP window in two newborns studied by us.     

腹部三维超声成像技术检查心脏的可行性研究

目的探讨腹部三维超声成像技术应用于非胎儿心脏检查的可行性及其应用价值。方法在常规二维超声心动图检查基础上,应用具有腹部三维超声成像功能的彩超仪的腹部三维超声探头对28例二尖瓣狭窄与16例房间隔缺损患者(11例儿童和5例成人)的心脏进行三维超声成像,记录二尖瓣最大开放面积与房间隔缺损最大径,并同手术测值和常规二维超声心动图测值进行对比分析。结果腹部三维超声成像技术可以直观地显示二尖瓣狭窄与房间隔缺损的立体形态特征,所测二尖瓣最大开放面积与房间隔缺损最大径同手术测值(r=0.81和r=0.89)和常规二维超声心动图测值(r=0.79和r=0.85)相关性良好,超声与手术方法测值比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论腹部三维超声成像技术可以应用于大多数儿童与部分成人的心脏检查,是对常规二维超声心动图的有益补充。     

Real Time Three-Dimensional Echocardiography for the Evaluation of Cardiomyopathy

Cardiomyopathy refers to a set of diseases that are characterized by myocardial dysfunction. Classically, two-dimensional echocardiography has been used in the diagnosis of these disorders and to help guide their management. Three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography is now increasingly being used in the diagnosis, management, and prognostication of intrinsic cardiomyopathies. In this article, we summarize the available data on the use of three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography in various forms of intrinsic cardiomyopathy as well as some of its advantages over traditional two-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography. (Echocardiography 2012;29:76-87)     

Interventional Echocardiography

Echocardiography guidance for interventions in the catheterization laboratory allows for reduction in radiation exposure from fluoroscopy as well as superior anatomic definition and visualization. The additional information provided over fluoroscopy has translated into an increasing use during interventional procedures. Procedures such as transeptal puncture, percutaneous valvular interventions, myocardial biopsy, echo-guided pericardiocentesis and other interventions have evolved to a complexity level that requires combined echocardiographic and fluoroscopic guidance. Different imaging modalities are utilized in the catheterization laboratory including intracardiac echocardiography, two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) transthoracic echocardiography, and 2D or 3D transesophageal echocardiography. This review is intended to provide an overall summary of the impact echocardiography has had in the catheterization laboratory. We will describe how echocardiography is utilized to guide a diverse array of interventional procedures, emphasizing specific practical issues with respect to echocardiographic guidance of interventional procedures and also pointing out the limitations of echocardiography.     

Improved analysis of left ventricular function using three-dimensional echocardiography

Left ventricular geometry and function are important pathophysiologic and prognostic parameters. However, especially in patients with cardiac pathologies left ventricular geometry can be complex. Quantification of left ventricular volumes using conventional two-dimensional echocardiography is only possible when simplifying assumptions of left ventricular geometry are made. In contrast three-dimensional echocardiography allows direct quantification of left ventricular volumes even in complex distortions of left ventricular shape. The availability of real-time three-dimensional echocardiography has brought this technique into clinical practice. Three-dimensional echocardiography is a technique that may be used as a routine echocardiographic method in the near future.