Streptococcus pneumoniae carriage and penicillin/ ceftriaxone resistance in hospitalised children in Darwin

Background: The prevalence of resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae (SP) is increasing worldwide. Pneumococcal prevalence and susceptibility patterns are not known for children in the Top End of the Northern Territory.
Aims: To determine the prevalence of nasopharyngeal carriage of pneumococci in children hospitalised in Darwin, and the extent of penicillin and ceftriaxone resistance in these isolates.
Methods: Nasopharyngeal swabs were collected on admission from 85 children who had not received antimicrobials for their admission illness. Antimicrobial resistance was determined following selective culture for SP isolates. Minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for penicillin and ceftriaxone were determined using the E-test method.
Results: The overall prevalence of nasopharyngeal SP carriage was 44%. Carriage occurred more often in Aboriginal children from rural areas (56%) than in urban children (24%) (OR 3.94, 95% CI 1.35 - 11.78, p <0.01). Thirty per cent of isolates were penicillin resistant, 35% were ceftriaxone resistant, and 49% were resistant to at least one of these. One isolate showed high-level resistance to both antimicrobials; all other resistant isolates were of intermediate-level resistance. For the same isolate, MICs for ceftriaxone were more often higher than those for penicillin. Five isolates had intermediate resistance to ceftriaxone whilst remaining sensitive to penicillin.
Conclusions: The prevalence of pneumococcal resistance to penicillin and ceftriaxone in hospitalised children in Darwin is much higher than previously reported in Australia. This has implications for future antimicrobial management and highlights the need for regular regional surveillance of SP resistance. The development of conjugate pneumococcal vaccines for children under two years is a priority.     

Penicillin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae in Isparta

OBJECTIVE: The first case reports of infection with penicillin-resistant pneumococci were made in Australia in 1967 and South Africa in 1977. Since this time the increasing emergence of penicillin- resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae have been a serious therapeutic problem. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to determine the penicillin resistance of S. pneumoniae strains isolated in the laboratory. The effect of procaine penicillin treatment against these strains was also investigated. METHODS: Sensitivity testing was done by disc diffusion method using oxacillin discs. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values were determined in tests with penicillin by the use of E-test (AB Biodisc, Solna, Sweden). Patients were treated with 2 x 800,000 U of i.m. procaine penicillin every 12 h for 10 days. RESULTS: Thirty-seven strains of S. pneumoniae were isolated from the sputa of adult patients who had pneumonia. Moderately resistant (0.12-1.00 microg/mL) and penicillin-sensitive (< or = 0.06 microg/mL) strains were identified in nine (24.3%) and 28 (75.7%) isolates, respectively. There were no high-level penicillin-resistant strains in the study. There was no therapeutic failure. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that procaine penicillin may still be useful in the empirical therapy of pneumococcal pneumonia.     

Outcome of meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b in children in The Gambia

In developing countries, endemic childhood meningitis is a severe disease caused most commonly by Streptococcus pneumoniae or Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib). Although many studies have shown that fatality rates associated with meningitis caused by these organisms are high in developing countries, little is known about the long-term outcome of survivors. The purpose of this study was to assess the importance of disabilities following pneumococcal and Hib meningitis in The Gambia. 257 children aged 0-12 years hospitalized between 1990 and 1995 with culture-proven S. pneumoniae (n = 134) or Hib (n = 123) meningitis were included retrospectively in the study. 48% of children with pneumococcal meningitis and 27% of children with Hib meningitis died whilst in hospital. Of the 160 survivors, 89 (55%) were followed up between September 1996 and October 1997. Of the children with pneumococcal meningitis that were traced, 58% had clinical sequelae; half of them had major disabilities preventing normal adaptation to social life. 38% of survivors of Hib meningitis had clinical sequelae, a quarter of whom had major disabilities. Major handicaps found were hearing loss, mental retardation, motor abnormalities and seizures. These data show that despite treatment with effective antibiotics, pneumococcal and Hib meningitis kill many Gambian children and leave many survivors with severe sequelae. Hib vaccination is now given routinely in The Gambia; an effective pneumococcal vaccine is needed.     

肺炎患儿肺炎链球菌的分离及耐药性分析

目的 调查肺炎患儿肺炎链球菌的分离及耐药性.方法 通过对415例肺炎患儿痰及咽拭子标本培养,分离SP,予以细菌鉴定和药敏的试验.结果 415例标本中共分离出肺炎链球菌96株（23.13%）,炎链球菌对青霉素的耐药率为41.67%.在检测的β-内酰胺类抗菌药物中,头孢噻肟与头孢曲松较为敏感,分别为66.66%、79.16%.对青霉素敏感和不敏感的肺炎链球菌其对头孢噻肟、头孢曲松、头孢呋辛、红霉素、阿奇霉素及克林霉素的敏感性也各不相同,P〈0.01.结论 肺炎儿童SP分离率高,SP对万古霉素、左氧氟沙星敏感性高,对头孢噻肟、头孢曲松、头孢呋辛及氯霉素比较敏感,对青霉素耐药率比较严重.     

广州地区耐青霉素肺炎链球菌分离状况及药物敏感性

目的　调查广州地区耐青霉素肺炎链球菌分离状况及其对８ 种抗菌药物体外抗菌活性,用以指导临床治疗时抗菌药物的选择。方法　采用Ｅｔｅｓｔ 方法。结果　从临床分离的１０２ 株肺炎链球菌中低耐药株１２ 株,对８ 种抗菌药物中阿莫西林／ 克拉维酸钾、头孢曲松、头孢呋辛、头孢克罗、氧氟沙星等抗菌活性在敏感范围,以阿莫西林／ 克拉维酸钾和头孢曲松最敏感,对青霉素、苯唑西林、阿齐霉素耐药。结论　广州地区耐青霉素肺炎链球菌的分离率不高,但随着抗生素的广泛使用,耐药株有可能增加,应引起高度重视。     

184例儿童感染肺炎链球菌的血清型分布及其耐药性分析

目的分析184例儿童感染肺炎链球菌的血清型分布及其耐药性情况。方法选取2014年1月至2017年12月我院呼吸道感染患儿2828例,进行痰液培养,分析病原菌检出情况,肺炎链球菌分布情况、血清分型以及对抗生素耐药性情况。结果2828例患儿的痰标本共检出674株病原菌(23.83%),其中肺炎链球菌184例,检出率为6.51%。年龄1个月~1岁患儿感染肺炎链球菌发生率为52.17%,明显高于1~3岁、3~6岁患儿的25.54%、22.28%(P<0.05);冬季患儿感染肺炎链球菌发生率为53.26%,明显高于春季、夏季、秋季的19.02%、13.05%、14.67%(P<0.05);184株肺炎链球菌共涉及11个血清型/群,主要分布于19F、19A、14型、9V、23F、6B、8型、7F、7A、其他等,另有11株未能分型。青霉素(脑膜炎)的不敏感率高达83.33%,明显高于青霉素(非脑膜炎)的63.24%(P<0.05);而头孢曲松对感染肺炎链球菌脑膜炎或非脑膜炎患儿的敏感率比较,无统计学意义(P>0.05)。患儿感染肺炎链球菌的青霉素(脑膜炎)、红霉素、四环素、复方新诺明、头孢克罗、克林霉素耐药检出率分别为72.91%、86.96%、89.13%、79.89%、80.43%、77.23%;而万古霉素、氯霉素、左氧氟沙星、氧氟沙星、莫西沙星、头孢曲松敏感率分别为100.00%、95.65%、98.38%、91.85%、92.94%、91.85%。结论儿童感染肺炎链球菌存在明显的年龄、季节、血清分布与耐药性差异,此研究结果对儿童肺炎抗感染治疗经验性抗生素选择有指导意义。     

331株肺炎链球菌的耐药性及基因分型

目的 了解杭州地区肺炎链球菌临床株的耐药性及青霉素耐药株的分子流行病学特征。方法 用Etest法测定菌株对青霉素的最低抑菌浓度(MIC)，用纸片扩散法测定肺炎链球菌对其他8种抗生素的耐药情况。并以盒式聚合酶链反应(PCR)和青霉素结合蛋白(PBP)基因指纹等分子生物学方法分析菌株间的亲缘关系。结果临床分离得到肺炎链球菌331株，Etest法测得55株(16．6％)青霉素高度耐药株(PRSP)，127株(38．4％)青霉素中度耐药株(PISP)。纸片扩散法测得氨苄西林、复方新诺明、红霉素、四环素、利福平、氯霉素的耐药率分别为1．2％、47．7％、90％、84．3％、0．3％及13％。所有菌株对氧氟沙星、万古霉素敏感。保存存活的35株PRSP可分为17种盒式-PCR谱型，PBP2X、PBP2B、PBP1A的指纹各为5种、7种、5种。盒式谱型A、H的菌株其耐药谱、MIC值和PBP基因指纹高度一致。结论杭州地区肺炎链球菌临床株的青霉素耐药率较高，非β-内酰胺类红霉素、四环素、复方新诺明的耐药率亦较高。杭州地区可能有耐药克隆的流行。     

国内耐药肺炎链球菌的流行现状

肺炎链球菌可引起细菌性肺炎、中耳炎和脑膜炎等疾病,是当今发达国家和发展中国家共有的一个重要病原.由于抗生素长期的过度使用,许多肺炎链球菌菌株能够同时耐受多种常用的抗生素,使得临床可应用的有效抗生素越来越少.耐药肺炎链球菌正在朝着超级细菌方向发展.这种现状值得我们关注并寻求近期和长期的解决方法.本文对国内肺炎链球菌耐...     

Correlation between usage of macrolide antibiotic and resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae clinic isolates from chongqing children's hospital

To investigate the reasons of growing resistance problem of Streptococcus pneumoniae against macrolide in Chongqing, a retrospective method was employed to measure the minimal inhibition concentrations (MIC) of macrolide antibiotic against 1,210 S. pneumoniae clinic isolates. The defined daily doses (DDDs) of macrolide antibiotic were calculated. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to determine the presence of the erythromycin‐resistant genes in 100 macrolide‐resistant S. pneumoniae isolates. A decrease in macrolide consumption, from 371,100 DDDs in 2002 to 182,500 DDDs in 2005 (51% reduction); however, the rate of erythromycin resistance in S. pneumoniae showed continued increase from 88.0% in 2002 to 96.0% in 2005. No linear correlation was observed between the decline in macrolide consumption and continued increase in resistant rate in S. pneumoniae. In 100 macrolide‐resistant S. pneumoniae isolates, 68 had both erm(B) and mef(A) genotypes, 10 only had the erm(B), 20 only had the mef(A). Co‐existences of ribosomal modification coded by erm(B) gene and efflux effects coded by mef(A) gene were the main resistance mechanism against macrolides and might be attributed to the high drug resistance of S. pneumoniae in Chongqing. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2009; 44:917–921. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

肺炎链球菌对红霉素的耐药性及耐药表型

目的 调查上海地区肺炎链球菌对红霉素，克林霉素的耐药率及红霉素耐药菌的耐药表型。方法 以琼脂稀释法测定345株肺炎链球菌对红霉素，克林霉素的最低抑菌浓度，以双纸片法测定红霉素耐药菌的耐药表型。结果 肺炎链球菌对红霉素及克林霉素及克林霉素的耐药率分别为53.0%（183/345）及49.6%(171/345)。对红霉素耐药菌中，内在型耐药（cMLS)占90.3%(159/176)，诱导型耐药（iMLS)占5.7%(10/176)，M型耐药占4.0%(7/176)。结论 上海地区肺炎链球菌对红霉素的耐药率高，其耐药表型以cMLS为主。     

A comparative clinical study of pneumonia by penicillin-resistant and -sensitive Streptococcus pneumoniae in a community hospital

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine the clinical difference of pneumonia between penicillin-resistant and penicillin-sensitive Streptococcus pneumoniae. METHODOLOGY: Forty-nine cases in 46 patients of pneumococcal pneumonia were studied from December 1992 to May 1997. There were 24 cases (in 22 patients) of penicillin-resistant pneumococci (PRSP) pneumonia which were compared with 25 cases (in 24 patients) with penicillin-sensitive pneumococci (PSSP). RESULTS: Both the mean age and the underlying disease states did not differ between the two groups. However, hospital-acquired pneumonia and previous use of antibiotics were observed in eight (33.3%) and 12 (50.0%) patients in PRSP compared with three (12.0%) and two (8.0%) in PSSP, respectively. The clinical efficacy rate and bacteriological eradication rates were 87.5 and 87.5% in PRSP compared with 87.5 and 87.0% in PSSP, respectively. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of antibiotics against 30 pneumococcal isolates was examined, and 10 strains ranged from 0.10-0.78 microg/mL and five strains were more than 1.56 microg/mL against penicillin G, while the MIC showed higher resistance to other antibiotics except for the carbapenems. Serotyping of the isolates by antiserum revealed differences in the predominant types PRSP (19F) and PSSP (6A,9V) [corrected]. CONCLUSIONS: We must care for not only community-acquired infection but also nosocomial transmission of PRSP pneumonia. Most patients with infections due to PRSP tended to have a milder illness with a good outcome (no patient died). As such it appears that empiric therapy for pneumococcal pneumonia does not require modification from what is recommended at present. However, in patients with infection due to highly resistant strains, and who are not responding to conventional therapy should have their treatment modified according to subsequent susceptibility testing.     

呼吸道感染肺炎链球菌分离株的耐药性分析

目的研究呼吸道感染患者肺炎链球菌分离株的耐药情况。方法通过细菌培养获得肺炎链球菌，对获得的肺炎链球菌进行药敏实验。结果呼吸道分离肺炎链球菌中青霉素耐药(PRSP)占39．3％，对头孢哌酮／舒巴坦、头孢克洛、头孢呋辛、头孢噻肟、头孢曲松、环丙沙星、左氧氟沙星、红霉素、克林霉素、复方新诺明、万古霉素、利福霉素的耐药率分别为39．3％，13．8％，36．6％，17．2％，35．9％，16．6％，40．0％，36．6％．51．7％，38．6％，60．0％，0和17．2％。结论吉林省肺炎链球菌对青霉素的耐药率已经处于较高水平，耐青霉素菌株对其他抗生素普遍耐药．已经发现对三代头孢菌素耐药菌株，未发现万古霉素耐药菌株。     

Risk factors for mortality in Paraguayan children with pneumococcal bacterial meningitis

Background Over the last decade Streptococcus pneumoniae has emerged as the most common bacterial pathogen for meningitis in all age groups, beyond the neonatal period. Objective To determine the epidemiological and clinical characteristics; and risk factors for mortality of pneumoccocal meningitis in children in a developing transitional country. Materials and methods A retrospective study that included patients <15 years of age admitted at the Instituto de Medicina Tropical of Paraguay, from January 1990 until December 2003 with the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis caused by S. pneumoniae. Clinical and laboratory data were collected and analysed in order to identify risk factors associated with morbidity and mortality outcomes of this infection. Results Seventy-two patients (between the ages of 35 days and 14 years) were identified. Forty-two per cent of patients had seizures prior to or at the time of admission, 36% were admitted in a comatose state, and 19% with shock. Mortality was 33% (24/72), and 18% of the survivors (11/60) developed severe sequelae. Upon admission, the following variables were strongly correlated with mortality: age <12 months (P = 0.007), the presence of seizures (P = 0.0001) or development of seizures 48 h after admission (P = 0.01), a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) glucose level of <10 mg/dl (P = 0.01), CSF albumin >200 mg/dl (P = 0.0003), an absolute blood neutrophil count <2000/mm³ (P = 0.006) and a haemoglobin value of <9 g/dl (P = 0.0001). Conclusions This study confirms the high morbidity and mortality associated with S. pneumoniae meningitis in Paraguay. Certain clinical parameters and laboratory findings in blood and CSF at the time of admission could be used as predictors for mortality or severe sequelae among survivors.     

Serotype distribution and antibiotic susceptibility of invasive and nasopharyngeal isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae among children in rural Mozambique

Objective To describe and compare serotype distribution and antibiotic susceptibility of invasive and nasopharyngeal isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae from children in rural Mozambique. Methods From August 2002 to July 2003, we prospectively obtained invasive pneumococcal isolates from children <15 years of age admitted to the paediatric ward of Manhiça District Hospital. During a cross‐sectional study of children <5 years of age with mild illnesses, attending the outpatient department of the hospital in March and April 2003, we collected nasopharyngeal isolates. Serotypes and antibiotic susceptibilities were determined using standardized methods. Results The two most common pneumococcal serotypes among invasive isolates were types 1 (40% of 88 isolates serotyped) and 5 (10%), but these types were rare among nasopharyngeal isolates. Compared with invasive isolates, nasopharyngeal isolates were more likely to be serotypes in the licensed seven‐valent conjugate vaccine (49%vs. 20%, P < 0.01), to have intermediate‐level penicillin resistance (52%vs. 14%, P < 0.01) and to be non‐susceptible to trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole (61%vs. 45%, P < 0.01). Recent receipt of antibiotics or sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine were associated with carriage of antibiotic non‐susceptible isolates. Conclusions These data indicate that a pneumococcal conjugate vaccine containing serotypes 1 and 5 could substantially reduce pneumococcal invasive disease among young children in rural Mozambique. Carriage surveys can overestimate potential coverage of the seven‐valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in settings where serotypes 1 and 5 predominate.     

Serotype and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae causing invasive disease in The Gambia 1996-2003

OBJECTIVES: To describe the characteristics of pneumococcal isolates obtained from patients with invasive pneumococcal disease in The Gambia. METHODS: Pneumococcal isolates were obtained from children aged < or =6 years with invasive pneumococcal disease during a Haemophilus influenzae vaccine effectiveness study (1997-2002) and from patients with invasive pneumococcal disease admitted to the MRC hospital, Fajara, for routine care (1996-2003). Isolates were identified, serotyped and tested for antibiotic susceptibility. RESULTS: Five hundred and thirty one pneumococcal isolates were obtained from 518 patients; 55 (10.6%) patients died; 415 isolates (79%) were from blood culture, 84 (16%) from CSF, and 42 (8%) from lung aspirates. Forty serogroups and serotypes were identified; six accounted for 64% and 16 for 86% of all episodes; 33.7% were of serotypes 1 and 5. 23.5% were of a 7-valent vaccine serotype, 57.1% were of a 9-valent vaccine serotype; 56% were of a 7-valent serogroup and 78% were of a 9-valent serogroup. There was a significant increase in the proportion of isolates of non-vaccine serogroup with increasing age (P < 0.0001). Antibiotic resistance had not significantly increased over time; but intermediate non-susceptibility to penicillin had risen and resistance to chloramphenicol had fallen in isolates of vaccine serotype compared with those of non-vaccine serotype. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of invasive pneumococcal disease in The Gambia is caused by pneumococci of relatively few serogroups. A conjugate vaccine would be expected to reduce the pneumococcal disease burden substantially and to have a beneficial effect on pneumococcal antibiotic resistance to penicillins.     

Antimicrobial susceptibility of invasive and lower respiratory tract isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae, 1998 to 2007

Previous surveys of antimicrobial resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae have found differences depending on source of isolate (eg, higher resistance in lower respiratory tract [LRT] versus invasive isolate) and age (higher resistance in children versus adults). Susceptibility profiles in the Calgary Health Region (approximately 1.25 million population) over a 10-year period were studied. Prospective laboratory-based population surveillance for S pneumoniae disease has been conducted since 1998. Patient demographics and susceptibility testing were analyzed. In total, 2382 patient isolates were available for analysis from 1998 to 2007. Of these, 1170 isolates were invasive while 496 were LRT. Patient age distribution was: younger than five years, 14%; five to 17 years, 6%; 18 to 64 years, 56%; and 65 years or older, 24%. Mean patient age was 44.8 years and 60.0% were male. The overall incidence of nonsusceptibility was: penicillin, 8.2%; amoxicillin, 0.3%; cefuroxime, 6.2%; ceftriaxone, 1.7%; erythromycin, 8.8%; trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX), 25.6%; clindamycin, 2.3%; and levofloxacin, 0.2%. Overall resistance rates were stable, except for increasing erythromycin resistance from 5.4% (1998) to a high of 14.2% (2004) (P=0.007). Isolates that were nonsusceptible to penicillin or TMP-SMX were more likely to be multidrug resistant (P<0.001) compared with penicillin- or TMP-SMX-susceptible isolates. Compared with invasive isolates, LRT isolates showed more resistance to penicillin, TMP-SMX, cefuroxime and erythromycin, and were more likely to be multidrug resistant. Isolates from children younger than five years of age are more likely to be multidrug resistant and resistant to erythromycin and cefotaxime. Ongoing surveillance of S pneumoniae isolates is important because resistance rates vary by source and patient age among health care regions.     

The epidemiology of penicillin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Pneumococci are not intrinsically resistant penicillin or other commonly used antibiotics. Penicillin-resistant strains were not encountered until 1965 when two strains were identified in Boston. At that time, the resistance was of a minor degree and its significance was not recognized by the authors. In 1971, resistant strains were encountered in New Guinea and, by the late 1970s, penicillin-resistant pneumococci had spread worldwide. By the early 1980s, areas where more than 10% of isolates were found to be penicillin resistant included Israel, Poland, Spain, South Africa, New Guinea, and the United States from New Mexico to Alaska. In this decade a number of countries including South Korea, Hungary, and Spain have reported dramatic increases in penicillin resistance. Penicillin resistance, once acquired by a virulent pneumococcal clone, has the ability to spread from country to country and to other continents in a relatively short time. Coincident with the increasing penicillin resistance has been the development of resistance to a wide variety of other antibiotics, including other cephalosporins, macrolides, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol. Some strains are so highly resistant as to significantly impair our ability to treat patients with meningitis and to choose an appropriate oral agent for the treatment of pneumococcal otitis media.     

儿童肺炎链球菌肺炎诊断及防治策略

肺炎链球菌是5岁以下儿童死亡的主要病原体,也是重症肺炎和坏死性肺炎最常见病原体。肺炎链球菌对常用抗菌药物特别是大环内酯类耐药日趋严重,但病原学检测仍是个难题,如传统的培养分离法、现代的分子生物学技术尚不能满足临床快捷、准确、安全、价廉的要求。如何准确识别肺炎链球菌,合理应用抗菌药物,减少耐药性以及推广肺炎链球菌疫苗是儿科医师面临的一大挑战。该文对肺炎链球菌肺炎临床表现、诊断、治疗及预防进展进行综述。