The Vermont Model for Rural HIV Care Delivery: Eleven Years of Outcome Data Comparing Urban and Rural Clinics

Context: Provision of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care in rural areas has encountered unique barriers. Purpose: To compare medical outcomes of care provided at 3 HIV specialty clinics in rural Vermont with that provided at an urban HIV specialty clinic. Methods : This was a retrospective cohort study. Findings: Over an 11-year period 363 new patients received care, including 223 in the urban clinic and 140 in the rural clinics. Patients in the 2 cohorts were demographically similar and had similar initial CD4 counts and viral loads. There was no difference between the urban and rural clinic patients receiving Pneumocystis carinii prophylaxis (83.5% vs 86%, P= .38) or antiretroviral therapy (96.8% vs 97.5%, P= .79). Both rural and urban cohorts had similar decreases in median viral load from 1996 to 2006 (3,876 copies/mL to <50 copies/mL vs 8,331 copies/mL to <50 copies/mL) and change in percent of patients suppressed to <400 copies/mL (21.4%-69.3% vs 16%-71.4%, P= .11). Rural and urban cohorts had similar increases in median CD4 counts (275/mm³-350/mm³ vs 182 cells/mm³-379/mm³). A repeated measures regression analysis showed that neither fall in viral load (P= .91) nor rise in CD4 count (P= .64) were associated with urban versus rural site of care. Survival times, using a Cox proportional hazards model, were similar for urban and rural patients (hazard ratio for urban = 0.80 [95% CI, 0.39-1.61; P= .53]). Conclusions: This urban outreach model provides similar quality of care to persons receiving care in rural areas of Vermont as compared to those receiving care in the urban center.     

Diabetes Care and Outcomes: Disparities Across Rural America

We examined differences in receipt of diabetes care and selected outcomes between rural and urban persons living with diabetes, using nationally representative data from the 2006 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS). “Rural” was defined as living in a non-metropolitan county. Diabetes care variables were physician visit, HbA1c testing, foot examination, and dilated eye examination. Outcome variables were presence of foot sores and diabetic retinopathy. Analysis was limited to persons 18 and older self-reporting a diagnosis of diabetes (n = 29,501). A lower proportion of rural than urban persons with diabetes reported a dilated eye examination (69.1 vs. 72.4%; P = 0.005) or a foot examination in the past year (70.6 vs. 73.7%; P = 0.016). Conversely, a greater proportion of rural than urban persons reported diabetic retinopathy (25.8 vs. 22.0%; P = 0.007) and having a foot sore taking more than four weeks to heal (13.2 vs. 11.2%; P = 0.036). Rural residence was not associated with receipt of services after individual characteristics were taken into account in adjusted analysis, but remained associated with an increased risk for retinopathy (OR = 1.20, 95% CI = 1.02–1.42). Participation in Diabetes Self-Management Education (DSME) was positively associated with all measures of diabetes care included in the study. Availability of specialty services and travel considerations could explain some of these differences.     

The adoption and use of health information technology in rural areas: results of a national survey

Context: Health information technology (HIT) is a national policy priority. Knowledge about the special needs, if any, of rural health care providers should be taken into account as policy is put into action. Little is known, however, about rural‐urban differences in HIT adoption at the national level. Purpose: To conduct the first national assessment of HIT in rural primary care offices, with particular attention to electronic medical record (EMR) adoption, range of capabilities in use, and plans for adoption. Methods: A national mail survey of 5,200 primary care offices, stratified by rurality using Rural‐Urban Commuting Area categories, was conducted in 2007‐2008. Regression analyses were used to assess the relationship between office characteristics and EMR adoption, capabilities used, and future adoption plans. Results: A commercial EMR system was present in 31% of offices, with no significant differences by rurality. Of offices with EMRs, 12% reported using a full range of EMR capabilities, with 51% using a basic range and 37% using less than the basic range. Large Rural (adjusted OR = 3.71, P= .022) and Small Rural (aOR = 3.75, P= .049) offices were more likely than Urban offices to use a broader range of EMR capabilities. Among offices without EMRs, those in Isolated areas were less likely to have more immediate plans to adopt (aOR = 0.19, P= .02). Conclusions: HIT adoption and use in rural primary care offices does not appear to be lower than in urban offices. The situation, however, is dynamic and warrants further monitoring.     

Regional Variation in Diabetic Outcomes by Country-of-Origin and Language in an Urban Safety Net Hospital

Adherence to diabetic care guidelines among US immigrants remains low. This study assesses adherence to diabetic care guidelines by country-of-origin and language among a limited English-proficient (LEP) population. Timely completion of diabetic measures and acceptable levels of hemoglobin A1c (A1c), low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and blood pressure (BP) were compared between LEP and English-proficient (EP) patients in this 2013 retrospective cohort study of adult diabetics. More LEP patients met BP targets (83 vs. 68 %, p < 0.0001) and obtained LDL targets (89 vs. 85 %, p = 0.0007); however, they had worse LDL control (57 vs. 62 %, p = 0.0011). Ethiopians and Somalians [adjusted OR (95 % CI) = 0.44 (0.30, 0.63)] were less likely than Latin Americans to meet BP goals. LEP patients outperformed EP peers on several diabetic outcomes measures with important variation between groups. These data highlight the success of a safety net hospital in improving diabetes management among diverse populations.     

Auditing secondary prevention of ischaemic heart disease in rural areas of Spain: An opportunity for improvement

Aim: To describe the standard of secondary prevention received by individuals with a history of ischaemic heart disease (IHD) in Spanish rural areas, and the factors associated with low standards of quality. Methods: Medical audit of patients with a history of IHD, whose data were provided by 72 rural physicians in 12 autonomous regions (1030 cases). Quality criteria were used based on international guidelines. Multivariate analysis was employed to assess the variables associated with poor-quality attention. Results: 30.9% of patients gave target low-density lipoprotein (LDL) readings, and 68.1% reached target blood pressure (BP). Beta-blockers were taken by 48.5%. Twenty-nine per cent of patients had not visited a specialist within the previous year. The fact that patients had visited a specialist within the previous year was associated with their having followed the types of treatments recommended in the guidelines (p?<?0.01) and with obtaining target LDL and BP readings (p?<?0.05). Patients from the smallest villages had the lowest probability of having LDL controls and also of receiving hypolipidaemic therapy (p<0.01). Those with a past history of isolated angina had lower probability of being treated with antiaggregants than those who had experienced previous acute myocardial infarction (p?<?0.01).

Conclusion: The quality of secondary prevention for these patients shows there is room for improvement. Problems of accessibility exist for some groups, which may be improved with the involvement of rural primary healthcare teams.     

Diabetes Prevention Education Program for Community Health Care Workers in Thailand

To evaluate the effects of a 4-month training program on the knowledge of CHCWs. CHCWs from 69 communities in Chiang Mai province in Thailand were assigned to the intervention group (IG, n = 35) or control group (CG, n = 34). All CHCWs were assessed for knowledge at baseline and at 4-months. The intervention group received a training program of 16 sessions of 2.5 h each within a 4-month period. A mix of classroom and E-learning approaches was used. All CHCWs were assessed for knowledge at baseline, 4-month, and follow-up at 8-month. Assessment was based on a pretested examination addressing understanding of nutritional terms and recommendations, knowledge of food sources related to diabetes prevention and diet-disease associations. Overall, the knowledge at baseline of both groups was not significantly different and all CHCWs scored lower than the 70% (mean (SD), 56.5% (6.26) for IG and 54.9% (6.98) for CG). After 4-month, CHCWs in the IG demonstrated improvement in total scores from baseline to 75.5% (6.01), P < .001 and relative to the CG 57.4% (5.59), P < .001. The follow up phase at 8-month, IG were higher in total scores than CG (71.3% (7.36) and 62.4% (6.81), P < .001). The diabetes prevention education program was effective in improving CHCWs’ health knowledge relevant to diabetes prevention. The innovative learning model has potential to expand chronic disease prevention training of CHCWs to other parts of Thailand.     

Association between Secure Messaging and Primary Care Face-to-Face Visits and Phone Visits

To study the association between secure message (SM) utilization and the subsequent use of face-to-face and telephone visits. MyHealtheVet is a web-based application allowing Veterans and their Veterans Health Administration (VHA) care team to communicate securely online. SMs may be sent 24 hours, 7 days/week. Two analyses were performed: (1) a retrospective cohort study comparing changes in utilization after initial SM use and (2) a matched cohort difference in difference analysis comparing utilization changes among SM users to non-SM users. Veterans registered in MyHealtheVet, who sent an index SM in calendar year 2016, were identified. A subset of these patients was matched to patients not using SM in calendar year 2016 on the same provider panel. Administrative data were abstracted via the VA Informatics Computing Infrastructure one year prior and after index SM for users and matched non-users. Utilization outcomes included annual primary care face-to-face and telephone visits. Firstly, a paired t test compared the within SM user difference in primary care face-to-face and telephone visits between the pre- and post-periods. Secondly, we matched SM users directly to non-users on the same panel based on age, gender, service-connected percent, and urban-rural designation. Controls were selected within 0.20 standard deviations of predicted propensity of SM use based upon Nosos comorbidity risk score and drive time to the nearest VA clinic. 154,053 Veterans who initiated secure messaging during calendar year 2016 with 25,683 of these matched to controls with no secure messaging use in 2016 (N = 49,266). Compared to the VHA population, SM users were younger (54.4 years vs 62.8) with a higher proportion of females (15.2% vs 8.0%) and urban residents (71.4% vs 63.7%). Among SM users, the annual primary care face-to-face visit rate decreased by 13% from 1.6 to 1.4 visits per SM user per year (P < .001). Similarly, annual telephone visit rates increased by 14%, from 2.7 to 3.1 visits per SM user per year (P < .001). Matched SM users and control samples did not statistically differ by service connection percentage, marital status, rurality, or drive time. However, when comparing cases to controls statistical differences are noted in age (62.3 vs 65.3), female gender (4.2% vs 2.5%), and Nosos comorbidity risk score (0.7 vs 0.6), respectively. Among Veterans in the matched control study, the annual primary care face-to-face visit rate decreased by 16%, or 0.23 visits per SM user per year (P < .001) and 9%, or 0.1 visits (P < .001) for controls. Likewise, the annual telephone visit rate increased by 11%, or 0.27 visits per SM user per year (P < .001) and 4%, or 0.08 visits (P < .001) for controls. For both visit types, the between-group difference was 7% (P < .001). The initiation of secure messaging was associated with a decrease in face-to-face primary care visits and an increase in telephone visits. The association between SM use and reduced face-to-face visits may improve the availability of clinical appointment slots while increasing the impact and time commitment required of non-traditional forms of enhanced access. Department of Veterans Affairs.     

Health care access in rural areas: Evidence that hospitalization for ambulatory care-sensitive conditions in the United States may increase with the level of rurality

We examined whether levels of rurality are associated with hospitalization for ambulatory care-sensitive conditions (ACSH) in eight states of the United States. ACSH is an indicator of access to reasonably effective primary health care. ACSH for children did not vary systematically with rurality. Compared to the most urban counties, the adjusted rate in the most rural was 90% greater for ages 18–64 and 45% greater for ages 65+ (both p<.001). Adjusted adult rates generally increased with the level of rurality.

Conclusions

Increasing levels of rurality may be positively associated with ACSH, suggesting rural disparities in access to primary health care.     

Diabetes Care Among Somali Immigrants and Refugees

The risk for development of diabetes and associated complications among immigrants increases in the years after arrival to the United States. Somali immigrants and refugees represent the largest subset of African immigrants to the United States, yet little is known about the quality of their diabetes care. Therefore, adherence with diabetes quality indicators (Hemoglobin A1C <7%, LDL cholesterol <100 mg/dl, blood pressure <130/80 mm Hg) were compared between Somali and non-Somali patients with diabetes at a large academic primary care practice in the United States in 2008. Demographic and health-seeking behavior variables were assessed for association with adherence among the Somali population. A total of 5,843 non-Somali and 81 Somali patients with diabetes were identified. Somali patients with diabetes were less likely to meet the criteria for optimal glycemic control than non-Somali patients (40.6% vs. 53.9%; P = 0.02). There was a similar, though statistically non-significant, trend towards lower rates of lipid control among Somali patients. There was no difference in achievement of optimal blood pressure between the two groups. There was a strong association between number of primary care visits during the study interval and achievement of all three diabetes care quality goals. This study demonstrates disparities in achievement of diabetes management quality goals among Somali patients compared with non-Somali patients, highlighting the need for additional system and practice changes to target this particularly vulnerable population.     

Prevalence,Quality of Care,and Complications in Long Term Care Residents With Diabetes: A Multicenter Observational Study

Background

Few studies have reported on the quality of diabetes care and glycemic control adjusted for medication use in long term care (LTC) facilities.

Methods

This observational study analyzed diabetes prevalence and management and the impact of glycemic control on clinical outcome in elderly subjects admitted to 3 community LTC facilities.

Results

Among 1409 LTC residents (age 79.7 ± 12 years), the prevalence of diabetes was 34.2%. Subjects with diabetes were either on no pharmacological agents (10%) or were treated with sliding scale regular insulin (SSI, 25%), oral antidiabetic drugs (OAD, 5%), insulin (34%), or with combination of OAD and insulin (26%). Patients with diabetes had a mean daily BG of 156 ± 39 mg/dL and a mean admission HbA1c of 6.7% ± 1.1%. Compared with nondiabetes, residents with diabetes had higher number of complications (54% vs 45%, P < .001), infections (26% vs 21%, P = .036), emergency room (ER) and hospital transfers (37% vs 30%, P = .003), but similar mortality (15% vs 14%, P = .56). A total of 43% of residents with diabetes had a BG less than 70 mg/dL, and those with hypoglycemia had longer median length of stay (LOS, 52 vs 29 days, P < .001), more ER or hospital transfers (56% vs 69%, P = .005), and mortality (20% vs 10%, P = .002) compared with residents without hypoglycemia.

Conclusion

Diabetes is common in LTC residents and is associated with higher resource utilization and complications. Hypoglycemia is common and is associated with increased need of emergency room visits and hospitalization and higher mortality. Our findings emphasize the need for randomized trials evaluating the impact of different approaches to glycemic management on clinical outcome in LTC residents with diabetes.     

Leveraging Electronic Health Records to Develop Measurements for Processes of Care

Objectives

To assess the reliability of data in electronic health records (EHRs) for measuring processes of care among primary care physicians (PCPs) and examine the relationship between these measures and clinical outcomes.

Data Sources/Study Setting

EHR data from 15,370 patients with diabetes, 49,561 with hypertension, in a group practice serving four Northern California counties.

Study Design/Methods

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and multilevel analyses of the relationships between processes of care variables and factor scales with control of hemoglobin A1c, blood pressure (BP), and low density lipoprotein (LDL) among patients with diabetes and BP among patients with hypertension.

Principal Findings

Volume of e-messages, number of days to the third-next-available appointment, and team communication emerged as reliable factors of PCP processes of care in EFA (Cronbach''s alpha = 0.73, 0.62, and 0.91). Volume of e-messages was associated with higher odds of LDL control (≤100) (OR = 1.13, p < .05) among patients with diabetes. Frequent in-person visits were associated with better BP (OR = 1.02, p < .01) and LDL control (OR = 1.01, p < .01) among patients with diabetes, and better BP control (OR = 1.04, p < .01) among patients with hypertension.

Conclusions

The EHR offers process of care measures which can augment patient-reported measures of patient-centeredness. Two of them are significantly associated with clinical outcomes. Future research should examine their association with additional outcomes.     

Practice Facilitation to Improve Diabetes Care in Primary Care: A Report From the EPIC Randomized Clinical Trial

PURPOSE

We investigated 3 approaches for implementing the Chronic Care Model to improve diabetes care: (1) practice facilitation over 6 months using a reflective adaptive process (RAP) approach; (2) practice facilitation for up to 18 months using a continuous quality improvement (CQI) approach; and (3) providing self-directed (SD) practices with model information and resources, without facilitation.

METHODS

We conducted a cluster-randomized trial, called Enhancing Practice, Improving Care (EPIC), that compared these approaches among 40 small to midsized primary care practices. At baseline and 9 months and 18 months after enrollment, we assessed practice diabetes quality measures from chart audits and Practice Culture Assessment scores from clinician and staff surveys.

RESULTS

Although measures of the quality of diabetes care improved in all 3 groups (all P <.05), improvement was greater in CQI practices compared with both SD practices (P <.0001) and RAP practices (P <.0001); additionally, improvement was greater in SD practices compared with RAP practices (P <.05). In RAP practices, Change Culture scores showed a trend toward improvement at 9 months (P = .07) but decreased below baseline at 18 months (P <.05), while Work Culture scores decreased from 9 to 18 months (P <.05). Both scores were stable over time in SD and CQI practices.

CONCLUSIONS

Traditional CQI interventions are effective at improving measures of the quality of diabetes care, but may not improve practice change and work culture. Short-term practice facilitation based on RAP principles produced less improvement in quality measures than CQI or SD interventions and also did not produce sustained improvements in practice culture.     

Occult Nighttime Hypertension in Daytime Normotensive Older Patients With Obstructive Sleep Apnea

ObjectivesTo assess nighttime blood pressure (BP), the dipping phenomenon and the relationships between nighttime BP, and polysomnography parameters in older patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) who have been identified by their primary care physician as being normotensive during the daytime.DesignCross-sectional study.SettingUniversity hospital-based geriatric sleep center.ParticipantsDaytime normotensive, community-dwelling older adults, consecutively referred by their primary care physicians for suspicion of OSA.MeasurementsOvernight polysomnography and 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure measurement (ABPM). Daytime hypertension defined as systolic BP ≥135 mm Hg and/or diastolic BP ≥85 mm Hg. Nighttime hypertension defined as systolic BP ≥120 mm Hg and/or diastolic BP ≥70 mm Hg. Dipper pattern characterized by nighttime fall of mean BP ≥10%.ResultsForty-five participants (30 OSA; 15 non-OSA) completed the study (76.9 ± 6.2 years old). ABPM indicated clinically significant nighttime systolic (132.5 ± 16.0) and diastolic (72.6 ± 9.4) hypertension in patients with OSA previously classified as daytime normotensives and found only a mild degree of nighttime systolic hypertension (123.7 ± 16.1) in patients without OSA (P = .105). A significant nondipping phenomenon was found in patients with OSA (–0.5 ± 7.4 vs 5.4 ± 6.4; P = .016). Nighttime mean BP (r = 0.301; P = .049) and dipping status (r = –0.478; P = .001) were correlated with apnea-hypopnea index. A significant correlation was found between systolic BP (r = 0.321; P = .035), diastolic BP (r = 0.373; P = .013), mean BP (r = 0.359; P = .018), and hypoxia (sleep time spend with SaO2 <90%).ConclusionDaytime normotensive older adults with OSA are at high risk for having occult nighttime hypertension. Thus, 24-hour ABPM may be appropriate for older patients with OSA whose clinical blood pressure does not display any daytime elevation.     

中国成年人血糖水平现状及其与体质指数和腰围的关系

目的 描述我国成年人血糖水平现状,探讨BMI、腰围与血糖水平的关系。方法 数据源于2018年中国慢性病及危险因素监测,采用多阶段分层整群随机抽样方法在全国31个省（自治区、直辖市）的298个监测区（县）选取≥18岁常住居民,以面对面问卷调查、身体测量和实验室检查方法收集人口学基本信息、慢性病危险因素信息、BMI、腰围和血糖水平等。对数据进行复杂加权后,分组描述不同特征人群的血糖水平,并利用多重线性回归分析不同特征人群的BMI及腰围与FPG及糖化血红蛋白的关系。结果 共纳入177 816名研究对象,我国成年人FPG和糖化血红蛋白分别为（5.73±1.46）mmol/L、（5.37±0.83）%,其中,均以≥60岁年龄组最高,男性均高于女性（P<0.001）,城市的平均糖化血红蛋白略高于农村（P<0.001）;平均FPG和平均糖化血红蛋白均随BMI和腰围的增长而增高（P<0.001）。多重线性回归校正混杂因素后,BMI每增加1 kg/m²,未诊断为糖尿病、新诊断为糖尿病和自报已诊断为糖尿病的FPG分别增加0.019 mmol/L（P<0.001）、0.021 mmol/L（P=0.163）和0.028 mmol/L（P=0.088）;糖化血红蛋白分别增加0.015%、0.050%和0.033%（均P<0.001）。腰围每增加1 cm,亚人群的FPG分别增加0.008 mmol/L（P<0.001）、0.014 mmol/L（P=0.004）、0.023 mmol/L（P<0.001）;糖化血红蛋白分别增加0.006%、0.019%、0.019%（均P<0.001）。腰围的标准化β值均高于BMI。结论 未被诊断为糖尿病且BMI或腰围高于正常值的成年人是重点防控人群。腰围预测血糖水平的能力高于BMI,应加大举措提高腰围知晓率,有助于实现各人群维持血糖正常。     

Is Sexual Dysfunction Associated with Diabetes Control and Related Factors in Women with Diabetes?

This study was performed to evaluate the sexual dysfunction (SD) in women with diabetes and to correlate SD with the factors related to diabetes and its control. The study was conducted in 310 non-pregnant women with diabetes, 19 years and over. Socio-demographic characteristics and other factors related to diabetes were evaluated using Participant Information Form. The Arizona Sexual Experience Scale was used to evaluate sexual function. Rate of SD was found as 46.7%. SD was frequent in sexual desire(36.8%), satisfaction from orgasm(25.5%) and orgasm(24.8%). Type of diabetes and treatment, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, BMI were not associated with SD (P > 0.05). SD increased with age, HbA_1c, high number of diabetic complications and poor education (P < 0.05). An one unit increase in HbA_1c value caused 19.1% of dysfunction increase on sexual dysfunction, 23.2% on drive, 20.7% on satisfaction from orgasm and 17.5% on orgasm(P < 0.05). Increasing HbA_1c, number of diabetic complications and low literacy should be considered as risk factors of SD and evaluated in routine clinical care of women with diabetes.     

Combining 2 Commonly Adopted Nutrition Instruments in the Critical Care Setting Is Superior to Administering Either One Alone

Background: This study aimed to determine the agreement between the modified Nutrition Risk in Critically ill Score (mNUTRIC) and the Subjective Global Assessment (SGA) and compare their ability in discriminating and quantifying mortality risk independently and in combination. Methods: Between August 2015 and October 2016, all patients in a Singaporean hospital received the SGA within 48 hours of intensive care unit admission. Nutrition status was dichotomized into presence or absence of malnutrition. The mNUTRIC of patients was retrospectively calculated at the end of the study, and high mNUTRIC was defined as scores ≥5. Results: There were 439 patients and 67.9% had high mNUTRIC, whereas only 28% were malnourished. Hospital mortality was 29.6%, and none was lost to follow‐up. Although both tools had poor agreement (κ statistics: 0.13, P < .001), they had similar discriminative value for hospital mortality (C‐statistics [95% confidence interval (CI)], 0.66 [0.62–0.70] for high mNUTRIC and 0.61 [0.56–0.66] for malnutrition, P = .12). However, a high mNUTRIC was associated with higher adjusted odds for hospital mortality compared with malnutrition (adjusted odds ratio [95% CI], 5.32 [2.15–13.17], P < .001, and 4.27 [1.03–17.71], P = .046, respectively). Combination of both tools showed malnutrition and high mNUTRIC were associated with the highest adjusted odds for hospital mortality (14.43 [5.38–38.78], P < .001). Conclusion: The mNUTRIC and SGA had poor agreement. Although they individually provided a fair discriminative value for hospital mortality, the combination of these approaches is a better discriminator to quantify mortality risk.