Physical examination of the knee

Regardless of whether knee pain is acute or chronic in presentation, the primary care physician must be confident and practiced in his or her musculoskeletal examination skills to perform a thorough assessment. Keeping in mind the types of problems that tend to occur in different age groups and in certain patient populations with particular risk factors, a preconceived differential diagnosis list should be present in the physician's mind. In most cases, the history and physical examination findings are sufficient to formulate a definitive diagnosis. Plain radiography (multiple views) and laboratory studies if indicated may narrow the differential. Advanced imaging studies will affirm the clinical findings. Referral may be necessary for surgical management, particularly in pediatric and unstable orthopedic cases (eg, suspected growth plate injury, compartment syndromes, displaced or intra-articular fractures). Consultation should always be readily available if questions arise on preliminary clinical work-up and management.     

Asthma

Asthma is an extremely common disease that the emergency physician handles on a daily basis. Accurate clinical assessment from the history and physical examination is very important to assess the severity of the disease. Some measure of airway resistance of either FEV1 or PEFR should be done in every patient initially, at repeated intervals, and at discharge, to have a parameter to follow in therapy as well as a tool to use to warn the physician of a severe amount of airway obstruction. The inhaled beta agonists are the first line of therapy in acute asthma and can be delivered by either the nebulizer or the MDI with or without a spacer. Aminophylline will be continued to be used acutely even though it appears there is no improvement in bronchospasm in the first few hours of treatment when aminophylline is added to therapy. Anticholinergic agents will gain a wider role in acute asthma, especially when used in combination with a beta agonist. Corticosteroids continue to have a role in severe attacks of asthma, and earlier use may prevent relapse. Fatal asthma still occurs, however, and the emergency physician must use strict criteria to recognize status asthmaticus or the patient who is not doing well and admit them to the hospital. Using a stepwise, logical approach to the treatment of the asthmatic patient will lead to better patient satisfaction and fewer errors on part of the emergency physician.     

Aortic disasters

TAD and AAA are two of the highest risk disease entities in emergency medicine. Emergency physicians should be vigilant in their approach to patients who have symptoms compatible with acute aortic disease. In chest and abdominal pain presentations, the chart must look like there was a search for the TAD and AAA. By having a sound knowledge of atypical cases;, having an appreciation for how subtle TAD and AAA can be; and recording and documenting a thorough history, physical examination, and risk factor profile, the emergency physician may reduce substantially the risk of missing a diagnosis and subsequently being sued. Emergency physicians cannot diagnose every case of acute aortic disease; what they can do is practice with a sound understanding of risk management principles and consider these diagnoses in all patients with chest, back, or abdominal pain.Ultimately, this strategy would provide protection for the patient and the physician.     

Orthopaedic complications of Lyme disease in children

Lyme disease is transmitted by the tick Ixodes dammini ("deer tick") or a related ixodid tick. Early diagnosis of children with Lyme disease is difficult because the bite of the ixodid tick often goes unnoticed. Furthermore, erythema chronicum migrans, the characteristic rash of the disease, occurs in less than 50% of cases. However, an awareness of orthopaedic complications of Lyme disease may facilitate an early diagnosis of this disease. Orthopaedic complications of Lyme disease include those which are oligoarticular in nature. Brief intermittent attacks of swelling and pain in one or more joints--primarily large ones--is the pattern of disease most frequently presented. The knee is the joint most commonly affected. In most cases, pain is not severe enough to debilitate the patient or prevent weight-bearing activity. An elevated sedimentation rate is the only consistently abnormal routine laboratory finding in Lyme disease. The only radiographic abnormalities noted in children are effusion and osteopenia. However, the radiograph of a patient known to have Lyme disease may not show any abnormalities at all. Lyme disease shares symptoms in common with septic arthritis and juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Whenever a distinction between Lyme arthritis and septic arthritis is difficult to make, treatment should be directed at septic arthritis while serological tests for Lyme disease are pending. The physician should consider Lyme disease to be a possible diagnosis of any patient with arthritis and a history of rash or fever, idiopathic neurological disease, or a cardiac conduction defect--especially if there is a history of possible exposure to the carrier tick.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Selected topics related to occupational exposures. Part V. Occupational cardiovascular disease

Cardiovascular disease is common in the United States. Several occupational exposures, such as carbon disulfide and organic nitrates, are believed to cause occupational cardiovascular disease. In addition some other agents, such as lead and cadmium, may indirectly cause cardiovascular disease through their effects on blood pressure. For other agents (ie, carbon monoxide, solvents, and chlorofluorocarbons), acute exposure and high levels may cause cardiovascular disease but may not cause cardiovascular disease through long-term or low levels. A primary care physician who has a patient with a new or unstable cardiovascular disease should obtain an occupational history to assess whether occupational exposures may be playing a role. An occupational history may indicate potential cardiovascular risks. Such risks can include exposure to certain chemicals and metals, physical factors, exertion, or psychological stress. The primary care physician should be able to assess the situation and advise the patient, as well as the employer, about restrictions or accommodations that may need to be made.     

儿童急、慢性荨麻疹IgE及嗜酸性粒细胞检测分析

目的探讨儿童急、慢性荨麻疹Ig E水平和嗜酸性粒细胞变化及其临床意义。方法分别用化学发光法、酶免荧光法和VCS(体积、电导性和散射)原理检测77例急性和46例慢性荨麻疹患儿血清总Ig E水平,食物、螨虫及植物类特异性Ig E和嗜酸性粒细胞比例,比较急、慢性荨麻疹患儿间上述指标的差异。结果伴有其它过敏性疾病的急、慢性荨麻疹患儿间血清总Ig E水平,食物、螨虫及植物类特异性Ig E阳性率差异无统计学意义(P0.05),但不伴有其它过敏性疾病的慢性荨麻疹患儿总Ig E水平显著高于急性荨麻疹患儿(P0.05);男性血清Ig E水平显著高于女性;随着年龄增长,总Ig E水平呈一定的增长趋势;螨虫类Ig E阳性率显著高于食物及植物类(P0.05)。急、慢性荨麻疹患儿嗜酸性粒细胞升高率差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论嗜酸性粒细胞比例不能作为儿童急、慢性荨麻疹鉴别诊断的指标。Ig E在无其它过敏性疾病的儿童急、慢性荨麻疹的鉴别诊断中具有一定的价值,但在其它情况,血清总Ig E水平不能作为儿童急、慢性荨麻疹鉴别诊断的指标,必须结合患儿病史、病程及临床症状方能作出正确的诊断。     

Wernicke's Encephalopathy Presenting as Acute Psychosis after Gastric Bypass

Background and Objectives: Patients frequently present to the Emergency Department (ED) with psychiatric complaints. The differential diagnosis for acute psychosis is extensive, and determining a possible etiology requires a thorough history and physical. Small details can help the physician in differentiating organic disease from non-organic disease. Many times patients are thought to be “crazy” without a thorough history and physical being done. Case Report: In this case, the diagnosis hinged on the history of having gastric bypass surgery. A thorough physical examination was performed, and the patient had neurologic findings suggestive of severe thiamine deficiency. The patient's thiamine level was low. The patient was started on i.v. thiamine and slowly began to recover. Conclusion: Cerebral beriberi, more commonly known as Wernicke's encephalopathy, is a difficult diagnosis to make in the ED. A thorough neurologic examination is difficult to perform in the ED environment, but it is necessary when trying to determine the etiology of the patient's altered mental status. The number of patients with Wernicke's encephalopathy may increase with bariatric surgery becoming more common. This disease can present with a wide variety of findings, and the classic triad is not very common. With this in mind, the physician should have a low threshold for administering thiamine intravenously.     

Evaluation of the traveler. An introduction to emporiatrics for the emergency physician

Travel medicine, or emporiatrics, presents an additional challenge to the practicing emergency physician. In this time of increased travel for business and pleasure, travel history should become a routine part of patient evaluation. While the emergency physician may not need to become facile with specific details concerning immunizations and prophylaxis, he or she should have a good working knowledge of these in order to provide the potential traveler with some basic information and to be able to adequately evaluate the returned traveler who becomes ill and seeks care. Air travel allows many travelers to arrive back in the United States before manifesting symptoms and signs of illness acquired abroad. Many of these illnesses are not usually found in the United States. Late diagnosis of certain illnesses, such as falciparum malaria, may increase the morbidity and mortality. As such, travel history should become a routine part of patient evaluation, and the physician should have a good working knowledge of illnesses that may be acquired abroad.     

Muscle contraction headache. Overview and update of a common affliction

Muscle contraction headache usually can be correctly diagnosed on the basis of a thorough patient history and physical examination, although diagnostic tests may be necessary to exclude structural or inflammatory disease. Often, symptoms are directly related to emotional conflicts. In most cases, the primary care physician can provide treatment, which includes understanding and emotional support. Pharmacologic therapy and biofeedback are effective in controlling symptoms. Depression should be suspected in patients with chronic headache. Referral for neurologic or psychiatric consultation should be considered if the diagnosis is unclear or therapy is unsatisfactory.     

Fibrose pulmonaire: dans quels cas et sur quels critères envisager une admission en réanimation ?

Pulmonary fibrosis is a severe and complex condition that belongs to the general spectrum of interstitial lung diseases. Exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is a significant determinant of poor patient outcome. When exacerbation is severe enough to require intensive care unit (ICU) admission, concerns exist due to the lack of effective therapy. Admission to the ICU of a patient with a known diagnosis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis should be discussed depending on whether the patient is listed for lung transplantation as well as on the etiological investigations performed in the setting of acute deterioration. Patients with acute worsening due to severe pulmonary arterial hypertension may also be admitted to the ICU for specific management. Wether the patient is admitted to the ICU, the intensity of initial management should not be restricted. The level of care should be rapidly discussed with the pulmonologist and the family, taking into account the results of the etiological investigations.     

Acute torsion and necrosis of the greater omentum herniated into a foramen of Morgagni

Computed tomography is mandatory in the investigation of the acute abdomen and can provide the physician with crucial information to decide whether the patient should be treated surgically or conservatively. An unusual cause of acute abdomen is presented. Computed tomography suggested the diagnosis of omental torsion and necrosis. At surgery, the greater omentum and part of the transverse colon were incarcerated in a small diaphragmatic hernia of the Morgagni type. Received: 18 April 2000/Revision accepted: 31 May 2000     

Diagnosis and treatment of testicular cancer

Testicular cancer is the most common malignancy in men 20 to 35 years of age and has an annual incidence of four per 100,000. If diagnosed early, the cure rate is nearly 99 percent. Risk factors for testicular cancer include cryptorchidism (i.e., undescended testicles), family history, infertility, tobacco use, and white race. Routine self-examination and physician screening have not been shown to improve outcomes, and the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force and American Cancer Society do not recommend them in asymptomatic men. Patients presenting with a painless testicular mass, scrotal heaviness, a dull ache, or acute pain should receive a thorough examination. Testicular masses should be examined with scrotal ultrasonography. If ultrasonography shows an intratesticular mass, the patient should be referred to a urologist for definitive diagnosis, orchiectomy, and further evaluation with abdominal computed tomography and chest radiography. The family physician's role after diagnosis of testicular cancer includes encouraging the patient to bank sperm because of possible infertility and evaluating for recurrence and future complications, especially cardiovascular disease.     

Beyond the Twelve-Lead Electrocardiogram: Diagnostic Tests in the Evaluation for Suspected Acute Myocardial Infarction in the Emergency Department,Part II

On a daily basis the emergency physician is faced with the difficult task of determining whether or not a patient with acute chest pain is sustaining an acute myocardial infarction. In most cases this is not a straightforward decision. Although observation units are being used more often for chest pain evaluations, many emergency physicians currently admit such patients to an intensive care setting. Because fewer than one-third of emergency department chest pain patients actually suffer an acute myocardial infarction, expensive resources are, in retrospect, used unnecessarily. Conversely, patients who are infarcting, and are inadvertently discharged home from the emergency department, have a worse prognosis than those admitted. This two-part series reviews the newer modalities available that may help the emergency physician arrive at a more accurate diagnosis. This article, Part II, will review the use of biochemical assays of cardiac proteins and discuss the Chest Pain Observation Unit.     

Exercise-induced anaphylaxis and urticaria.

In a select group of persons, exercise can produce a spectrum of allergic symptoms ranging from an erythematous, irritating skin eruption to a life-threatening anaphylactic reaction. The differential diagnosis in persons with exercise-induced dermatologic and systemic symptoms should include exercise-induced anaphylaxis and cholinergic urticaria. Both are classified as physical allergies. Mast cell degranulation with the release of vasoactive substances appears to be an inciting factor for the production of symptoms in both cases. Exercise-induced anaphylaxis and cholinergic urticaria can be differentiated on the basis of urticarial morphology, reproducibility, progression to anaphylaxis and response to passive warming. Diagnosis is usually based on a thorough history and examination of the morphology of the lesions. Management of acute episodes of exercise-induced anaphylaxis includes cessation of exercise, administration of epinephrine and antihistamines, vascular support and airway maintenance. Long-term care may require modification of or abstinence from exercise, avoidance of co-precipitating factors and the prophylactic use of medications such as antihistamines and mast cell stabilizers.     

Evaluation of the patient with muscle weakness

Muscle weakness is a common complaint among patients presenting to family physicians. Diagnosis begins with a patient history distinguishing weakness from fatigue or asthenia, separate conditions with different etiologies that can coexist with, or be confused for, weakness. The pattern and severity of weakness, associated symptoms, medication use, and family history help the physician determine whether the cause of a patient's weakness is infectious, neurologic, endocrine, inflammatory, rheumatologic, genetic, metabolic, electrolyte-induced, or drug-induced. In the physical examination, the physician should objectively document the patient's loss of strength, conduct a neurologic survey, and search for patterns of weakness and extramuscular involvement. If a specific cause of weakness is suspected, the appropriate laboratory or radiologic studies should be performed. Otherwise, electromyography is indicated to confirm the presence of a myopathy or to evaluate for a neuropathy or a disease of the neuromuscular junction. If the diagnosis remains unclear, the examiner should pursue a tiered progression of laboratory studies. Physicians should begin with blood chemistries and a thyroid-stimulating hormone assay to evaluate for electrolyte and endocrine causes, then progress to creatine kinase level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody assays to evaluate for rheumatologic, inflammatory, genetic, and metabolic causes. Finally, many myopathies require a biopsy for diagnosis. Pathologic evaluation of the muscle tissue specimen focuses on histologic, histochemical, electron microscopic, biochemical, and genetic analyses; advances in technique have made a definitive diagnosis possible for many myopathies.     

Acute glaucoma presentations in the elderly

Acute glaucoma classically presents with severe pain, redness, and reduced vision in the affected eye, and severe cases can also have systemic symptoms. We report three cases of acute glaucoma in elderly patients. The diagnosis of acute glaucoma in a patient who presents with sudden onset of a painful, red eye with reduced visual acuity, a hazy cornea, and a fixed, semi-dilated pupil is comparatively straightforward. However, any patient with headache, malaise, or gastrointestinal disturbance, especially with clinical signs of an acute red eye and reduced vision, should alert doctors to the possibility of acute glaucoma. This is especially important in elderly people, who may not volunteer any specific ocular symptoms.     

Cold Urticaria

Urticaria due to cold or cooling is a not uncommon entity and presents many diagnostic and therapeutic problems. Obviously a patient with cold urticaria should try to avoid exposure to cold, but this is seldom a practical solution to his problem. Better means of control can now be offered to most patients. The physician must be alert to underlying diseases which may be associated with this unique and interesting physical “allergy.”     

Near fatal acute respiratory distress syndrome in a patient with human ehrlichiosis

Human ehrlichiosis is not a common cause of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Physicians should be aware of this life-threatening but treatable entity. Progression to ARDS may be related to delay in diagnosis and treatment. Fever, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and a history of tick exposure in an endemic area during the spring and summer months should alert the physician to the possibility of human ehrlichiosis, since a definitive diagnosis requires serologic testing that may take weeks to confirm. We describe a case of ARDS resulting from human ehrlichiosis. A unique feature in our case was that despite the early use of doxycycline, the patient had near fatal ARDS that responded dramatically to high doses of steroids.     

Relapsed thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura presenting as an acute cerebrovascular accident

Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) is an uncommon but severe disorder that classically presents with microangiopathic hemolytic anemia (MAHA), thrombocytopenia, and fluctuating neurological changes. Previously, it was impossible to make a diagnosis of TTP in the absence of thrombocytopenia or microangiopathic hemolysis (MAHA). We describe two cases of relapsing TTP that presented with acute cerebrovascular accident (CVA) without concurrent thrombocytopenia or MAHA after initial classical presentation of TTP. In both cases, the diagnosis of TTP as the cause of the CVA was attributed to severe deficiency of the von Willebrand factor cleaving protease, ADAMTS13 in plasma (11 and 12%, normal 79-127%). Each patient had a dramatic clinical improvement in response to therapeutic plasma exchange. The experience in these two cases suggests that TTP should be considered as a potential cause among patients presenting with a CVA, particularly if the patients have a history of TTP.     

Following up patients after treatment for anaphylaxis

Anaphylaxis is defined as a severe, life-threatening, generalised or systemic hypersensitivity reaction. Diagnosis is based on the presenting symptoms and signs which classically develop rapidly, typically evolving over minutes but in some cases hours. Various combinations of airway and/or breathing and/or circulatory problems are possible, as well as urticaria, and hypotension. Skin and/or mucosal changes (typically urticaria and/or angioedema) are seen in around 75% of cases, but importantly these features alone are insufficient for a diagnosis of anaphylaxis. As soon as possible after successful emergency treatment, timed blood samples should be taken for the mast cell tryptase (MCT) test. Serum samples need to be taken within 1-2 hours but no later than 4 hours from the onset of symptoms. It is important to document the acute clinical features (record BP, respiratory rate etc) and the time course of the onset of symptoms/signs and their resolution. Because of the risk of relapse patients should be observed for 6-12 hours after the onset of symptoms. Children under 16 years should be admitted and supervised by a paediatrician. An adrenaline injector device for intramuscular use only, should be prescribed as an interim measure before referral to a specialist allergy clinic. Referral to a specialist allergy service (or specialist paediatric service), is strongly recommended. Diagnosis can be confirmed, and further investigations organised.