Review: nurses can improve patient nutrition in intensive care

Aims and objectives. To review the literature and identify opportunities for nutritional practice improvement in the critically ill and opportunities to improve nurses’ knowledge relating to enteral feeding. Background. The literature reports varying nutritional practices in intensive care. Design. Systematic review. Methods. A systematic search, selection, analysis and review of nursing, medical and dietetic primary research articles was undertaken. Fifteen studies met the selection criteria. Results. Delivery of nutrition to the critically ill varied widely. Patients were frequently underfed and less frequently, overfed. Both under‐ and overfeeding have been linked with unacceptable consequences including infections, extended weaning from mechanical ventilation, increased length of stay and increased mortality. Underfeeding was related to slow initiation and advancement of nutrition support and avoidable feed interruptions. The most common reasons for interrupting feeds were gastrointestinal intolerance and fasting for procedures. Certain nursing practices contributed to underfeeding such as the management of gastric residual volumes. Conclusions. Consistent and reliable nutrition support in intensive care units is hampered by a lack of evidence leading to varying nutrition practices. Factors impeding delivery of enteral nutrition were considered avoidable. A new concept of a therapeutic range of energy delivery in the critically ill has emerged implying the need for re‐evaluation of energy recommendations and improved delivery of enteral nutrition. Relevance to clinical practice. This review supports the multi‐disciplinary development and implementation of an evidence‐based enteral feeding protocol in intensive care units as a strategy to improve adequacy of nutritional intake. Critical care nurses are well placed to improve this process.     

A European survey of enteral nutrition practices and procedures in adult intensive care units

Aims. The aim of this survey was to gain an overview of enteral nutrition practices and procedures of European adult intensive care units and to describe current trends. Background. Currently, little is known about nutritional practices in European intensive care units and whether they match existing guidelines. Design. Survey. Methods. A 51‐item questionnaire about nutritional assessment and enteral feeding was distributed to 383 intensive care units in 20 countries. Results. A total of 380 (99·2%) questionnaires were returned. Most intensive care units (86·5%, n = 320/370) did not use a nutritional risk score and 35·8% (n = 133/371) conducted daily assessments of nutritional status; body weight and serum albumin were the commonest measures. Checking the position of the feeding tube using auscultation of injected air was widespread (72·6%, n = 275/373). Most units used a clinical protocol and under half were supported by a nutritional support team. Conclusion. There are some variations in enteral nutrition practices across European intensive care units. Involvement of nurses in performing nutritional assessments or developing clinical protocols was minimal. The use of outdated procedures for checking feeding tube placement is a concern. There is scope for further development of nutrition guidelines in European units. Relevance to clinical practice. This study is relevant to all nurses working in critical care areas. The findings suggest that when an intensive care unit is supported by a nutritional support team it is more likely that a nutritional score will be used and nutritional assessments will be made daily. Many intensive care practices do not conform to international guidelines for enteral feeding. Nutritional assessment and the use of nutritional risk scores are areas that would benefit from further application in intensive care. This study may provide an impetus for intensive care units to review their nutrition assessment practices and to advance evidence‐based guidelines, developed by multi‐professional teams, which ensure the safe and effective management of patients receiving enteral nutrition.     

Enteral nutrition administration in a surgical intensive care unit: Achieving goals with better strategies

AIM: To evaluate the impact of an enteral feeding protocol on administration of nutrition to surgical intensive care unit (SICU) patients. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was conducted on patients initiated on enteral nutrition (EN) support during their stay in a 14 bed SICU. Data collected over a seven-day period included date of tube feed initiation, rate initiated, subsequent hourly rates, volume provided daily, and the nature and length of interruptions. The six months prior to implementation of the feeding protocol (pre-intervention) and six months after implementation (post-intervention) were compared. One hundred and four patients met criteria for inclusion; 53 were pre-intervention and 51 post-intervention. RESULTS: Of the 624 patients who received nutrition support during the review period, 104 met the criteria for inclusion in the study. Of the 104 patients who met criteria outlined for inclusion, 64 reached the calculated goal rate (pre = 28 and post = 36). The median time to achieve the goal rate was significantly shorter in the post-intervention phase (3 d vs 6 d; P = 0.01). The time to achieve the total recommended daily volume showed a non-significant decline in the post-intervention phase (P = 0.24) and the overall volume administered daily was higher in the post-intervention phase (61.6% vs 53.5%; P = 0.07). While the overall interruptions data did not reach statistical significance, undocumented interruptions (interruptions for unknown reasons) were lower in the post-intervention phase (pre = 23/124, post = 9/96; P = 0.06). CONCLUSION: A protocol delineating the initiation and advancement of EN support coupled with ongoing education can improve administration of nutrition to SICU patients.     

早期空肠内营养治疗重症急性胰腺炎疗效观察

目的探讨早期空肠内营养(EN)在重症急性胰腺炎(SAP)治疗中的作用。方法 35例SAP患者分为全胃肠外营养(TPN)组17例和EN组18例。TPN组给予全胃肠外营养直至完全经口进食;EN组在早期即实施EN治疗。结果 EN组感染率、并发症发生率、平均腹胀缓解时间、平均住院时间和平均住院费用均显著低于TPN组(P0.05),两组病死率比较差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论 EN是SAP的重要治疗手段,及早行EN安全有效。     

Enteral nutrition in intensive care patients: a practical approach

Severe protein-calorie malnutrition is a major problem in many intensive care (ICU) patients, due to the increased catabolic state often associated with acute severe illness and the frequent presence of prior chronic wasting conditions. Nutritional support is thus an important part of the management of these patients. Over the years, enteral nutrition (EN) has gained considerable popularity, due to its favorable effects on the digestive tract and its lower cost and rate of complications compared to parenteral nutrition. However, clinicians caring for ICU patients are often faced with contradictory data and difficult decisions when having to determine the optimal timing and modalities of EN administration, estimation of patient requirements, and choice of formulas. The pur- pose of this paper is to provide practical guidelines on these various aspects of enteral nutritional support, based on presently available evidence. Received: 7 April 1998 Accepted: 24 April 1998     

全胃切除术后早期肠内联合肠外营养的临床观察与护理

目的:探讨早期肠内(EN)肠外(PN)联合营养在全胃切除术后的应用效果。方法:将32例患者随机分为早期肠内、肠外联合组(EN+PN)和肠外营养组(PN组),分析两组患者围手术期营养剂免疫指标变化、术后恢复情况的差异、平均住院日、住院费用、并发症等。结果:术后第8 d与术前比较:PN组的体重下降明显(P<0.05),EN+PN组(联合组)的各组血清白蛋白及淋巴细胞计数明显升高(P<0.05),肠道功能恢复、平均住院天数、住院费用及并发症发生率均较PN组减少(P<0.01),各项细胞免疫指标变化两组比较差异无显著意义。结论:早期肠内肠外联合营养应用到全胃切除可明显改善患者术后机体的营养状况,促进肠功能恢复。科学有效的护理是全胃切除术后肠内、肠外营养支持顺利进行的保证。     

Enteral nutrition in the critically ill patient: A critical review of the evidence

Objective To examine the relationship between enteral nutrition (EN) and infection in the critically ill.Setting: Computerized search of published research and review of relevant reference lists.Study selection: 151 citations were reviewed and 39 articles met selection criteria. Primary studies were included if they evaluated EN in critically ill humans and its effect on infectious morbidity and mortality.Measurements and results Relevant data were abstracted on the timing and impact of EN on morbidity, the optimal route of administration, composition and pH of EN, and bacterial contamination of EN. The evidence from human studies that EN, particularly early EN, results in reduced septic morbidity as compared to parenteral nutrition is limited to small, unblinded studies with non-rigorous definitions of pneumonia. There is no evidence to support a preference of feeding into the stomach versus the small bowel. The addition of fish oil, arginine, glutamine and fiber to enteral feeds has a variable impact on survival in animal models; there are no trials in critically ill patients that demonstrate a reduction in infectious morbidity and mortality. Acidification of enteral nutrition results in decreased bacterial colonization of the stomach in critically ill patients. Bacterial contamination of enteral nutrition is an important source of infection.Conclusions Evidence from experimental data in critically ill patients suggests that enteral nutrition may have a favourable impact on gastrointestinal immunological function and infectious morbidity.     

肠内营养对重型破伤风患者营养支持的探讨

目的 探讨重型破伤风患者应用肠内营养(EN)支持对患者营养状况的影响.方法 将60例重型破伤风患者随机分为EN组和对照组,每组各30例,EN组在常规治疗的基础上给予肠内营养,对照组在常规治疗基础上给予部分静脉营养,于营养支持前一天及营养治疗后第11天检测两组患者的BMI、TSF、MAMC,TP、PA、ALB及Hb等指标,并且全程观察不良反应及疗效.结果 营养支持10天后两组患者的BMI、TSF、MAMC下降不明显,EN组的TP、PA、ALB及Hb均高于同期对照组(P＜0.05).EN组并发症发生率(16.7%)低于对照组(36.7%),两组比较有统计学意义(P＜0.05).结论 早期EN可改善重型破伤风患者蛋白质代谢和患者营养状况,提高了机体免疫功能,减少并发症.

Abstract：

Objective To study the effect of enteral nutrition on patients with severe tetanus. Methods The patients totaled 60 cases were divided into two groups with 30 cases in each. The patients in EN group were treated with enteral nutrition on basis of routine treatment, control group was treated with total parenteral nutrition (TPN). The indicators values of BMI, TSF, MAMC, TP, PAm, m, ALB and Hb were tested on the day before nutrition supports and after nutrition supports 10 days later in two groups. Adverse reaction and the treatment effect were observed simultaneously. Results With nutritional supports 10 days later, two groups had no obvious decline in BMI, TSF and MAMC. TP, PA, ALB and Hb of EN group were higher than those of control group (P＜0.05) . Complication rate of EN group was lower than that of control group, there was significant differences (P＜0.05) . Conclusions Early EN may improve protein metabo lism in patients with severe tetanus and nutritional status.     

Study of paediatric intensive care units in Spain

Objective: To describe the organisation of paediatric intensive care units in Spain and the medical assistance provided during 1996.¶Methods: A written questionnaire was sent to all the paediatric ICUs linked to or within the Spanish public health system.¶Results: Thirty-one of the 34 paediatric ICUs replied. All are medico-surgical units. Eighteen treat only paediatric patients, 12 paediatric and neonatal patients, and one paediatric and adult patients. Fifteen units have fewer than seven beds, eight have between 7 and 12 beds, and eight between 13 and 18 beds. Of the paediatric ICUs, 83.8 % are staffed by paediatricians specialised in paediatric intensive care. The mean number of on-call on site periods of duty for each member of the medical staff was 5.1 ± 1.7 per month. Thirty of the 31 units undertake paediatric resident training, 13 train residents specialising in paediatric intensive care and 12 participate in medical student training.¶In 1996 there were 9,585 admissions (309 ± 182 patients per ICU) signifying 35.3 ± 14 patients/bed. Of the patients, 65.9 % were medical and 34.1 % surgical. The mean duration of stay was 5.6 ± 2.1 days. The mortality rate was 5.4 ± 3.2 %. The main causes of death were multiple organ failure and brain death.¶Conclusions: In Spain, paediatric intensive care is principally performed by specialised paediatricians. Although the general results for 1996 are similar to those of other European countries, efficiency studies are necessary to plan and re-organise the paediatric intensive care units in Spain.     

危重病患者血清瘦素表达及营养评价指标的作用

目的　探讨危重患者急性期禁食、全胃肠外营养 (TPN)治疗后血清瘦素的表达 ,以及营养评价指标对营养支持的作用。方法　用放射免疫法测定危重病患者血清瘦素 ,同时检测相关营养评价指标。结果　危重病患者急性期瘦素变化不明显 ,TPN治疗后迅速上升 ,第 3天达高峰 ,治疗后 5d仍高于正常。两组血浆纤维蛋白原、白蛋白、总胆固醇、甘油三脂、血淋巴细胞计数差异均无显著性意义 ,P >0 0 5。结论　危重病患者急性期禁食血清瘦素无显著性改变 ,但对TPN治疗反应迅速 ,血清瘦素有可能用来作为危重病患者急性期营养评价指标。血浆纤维蛋白原、白蛋白、总胆固醇、甘油三脂、淋巴细胞计数对危重病患者急性期营养状况无评价性作用。     

肠外营养一般护理及并发症护理进展

从心理护理、无菌技术操作、体温监护、切口护理等方面介绍了肠外营养的一般护理;并阐述了肠外营养常见并发症（代谢性并发症、导管相关性并发症和感染性并发症）的护理。     

肠外营养一般护理及并发症护理进展

从心理护理、无菌技术操作、体温监护、切口护理等方面介绍了肠外营养的一般护理;并阐述了肠外营养常见并发症(代谢性并发症、导管相关性并发症和感染性并发症)的护理。     

肠内营养支持在危重病中的应用研究

目的：观察肠内营养在危重病中的支持效果。方法：将ＩＣＵ中２６例危重患者随机分为肠内营养支持组（１４例）和肠外营养支持组（１２例）,在营养支持前１日及营养支持第１０日测量三头肌皱厚度,上臂肌围,血清白蛋白及血红蛋白,每日计算氮平衡并观察相关并发症情况。     

早期肠内营养在重症监护室重型颅脑损伤中的临床研究

目的探讨重症监护室重型颅脑损伤患者早期肠内营养的方法。方法对41例重症监护室重型颅脑损伤患者随机分为对照组和观察组。对照组肠外营养支持;治疗组完全肠内营养支持。比较2组氮平衡(NB)、血清清蛋白(ALB)、前清蛋白(PA)、转铁蛋白(TFN)、IgA、IgG、IgM以及肝、肾功能、血糖(GLU)和并发症等指标。结果 2组患者营养支持后NB、PA、TFN、IgA、IgG、IgM水平明显改善,而ALB、肝功能、肾功能、血糖水平无明显变化;治疗组NB、PA、IgA、IgM较对照组明显改善(P<0.05)。结论重症监护室重型颅脑损伤患者肠内营养,不仅可以改善患者全身代谢状况,减少负氮平衡,而且还能提高免疫功能。     

全胃肠外营养中心静脉导管感染菌群耐药性分析

目的分析全胃肠外营养中心静脉导管感染菌群的耐药情况，指导临床用药。方法回顾性调查1998年1月至2002年12月在我院发生全胃肠外营养中心静脉导管感染57例病原菌及药敏试验结果。结果感染菌群中革兰阳性菌占43．9％，革兰阴性菌占49．1％，真菌占7．0％。多数细菌对不同抗菌药物有不同程度的耐药，革兰阳性细菌对万古霉素的敏感率是100％，革兰阴性细菌对头孢他啶和头孢曲松的敏感率分别为78．6％和64．3％。结论临床医师及早做细菌培养，根据药敏试验选择应用抗菌药物治疗导管感染，可提高治愈率。     

急性脑卒中合并吞咽困难患者早期经鼻饲管肠内营养的相关研究

目的:研究急性脑卒中合并吞咽困难患者早期经鼻饲管肠内营养的临床效果。方法:将180例脑卒中合并吞咽困难患者按入院顺序分为实验组和对照组各90例,实验组常规治疗基础上早期留置鼻胃管进食,对照组常规治疗基础上经口进食。比较两组患者治疗3周后的营养指标、神经功能恢复、误吸及肺炎发生情况。结果:实验组的各项营养指标、神经功能恢复评分优于对照组(P0.01),误吸及肺炎的发生明显少于对照组(P0.05)。结论:对急性脑卒中合并吞咽困难患者应早期经鼻饲管肠内营养支持治疗。