Clinical algorithm for preventing missed diagnoses of occult cervical spine instability after acute trauma: A case report

BACKGROUNDMissed or delayed diagnosis of cervical spine instability after acute trauma can have catastrophic consequences for the patient, resulting in severe neurological impairment. Currently, however, there is no consensus on the optimal strategy for diagnosing occult cervical spine instability. Thus, we present a case of occult cervical spine instability and provide a clinical algorithm to aid physicians in diagnosing occult instability of the cervical spine.CASE SUMMARYA 57-year-old man presented with cervical spine pain and inability to stand following a serious fall from a height of 2 m. No obvious vertebral fracture or dislocation was found at the time on standard lateral X-ray, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Subsequently, the initial surgical plan was unilateral open-door laminoplasty (C3-7) with alternative levels of centerpiece mini-plate fixation (C3, 5, and 7). However, the intraoperative C-arm fluoroscopic X-rays revealed significantly increased intervertebral space at C5-6, indicating instability at this level that was previously unrecognized on preoperative imaging. We finally performed lateral mass fixation and fusion at the C5-6 level. Looking back at the preoperative images, we found that the preoperative T2 MRI showed non-obvious high signal intensity at the C5-6 intervertebral disc and posterior interspinous ligament.CONCLUSIONMRI of cervical spine trauma patients should be carefully reviewed to detect disco-ligamentous injury, which will lead to further cervical spine instability. In patients with highly suspected cervical spine instability indicated on MRI, lateral X-ray under traction or after anesthesia and muscle relaxation needs to be performed to avoid missed diagnoses of occult cervical instability.     

Distracting injuries in patients with vertebral injuries

To describe the prevalence and types of distracting injuries associated with vertebral injuries at all levels of the spine in blunt trauma patients. A prospective cohort study was conducted at an urban Level I trauma center. All patients undergoing radiographic evaluation of the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar vertebrae after blunt trauma were enrolled. Patients had a data collection form completed by the treating physician before radiographic imaging and were evaluated for the following upon initial presentation: tenderness to the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar spine, distracting injuries, altered mental status, alcohol or drug intoxication, or neurological deficits. Patients with distracting injuries as the sole documented indication for vertebral radiographs were reviewed for the types of injuries present. A total of 4698 patients were enrolled in the study. There were 336 (7.2%) patients who had distracting injuries as the sole documented indication for obtaining radiographic studies of the vertebrae. Eight (2.4%, 95% CI 1.0-4.6%) of the 336 patients had 14 acute vertebral injuries including compression fractures (5), transverse process fractures (7), spinous process fracture (1), and cervical spine rotatory subluxation (1). There were 13 thoracolumbar injuries and one cervical spine injury. Distracting injuries in the eight patients with acute vertebral injuries included 13 bony fractures. Distracting injuries in those patients without vertebral injuries included bony fractures (333), lacerations (63), soft tissue contusions (62), head injuries (15), bony dislocations (12), abrasions (11), visceral injuries (8), dental injuries (5), burns (3), ligamentous injuries (3), amputation (1), and compartment syndrome (1). In conclusion, in patients with distracting injuries, bony fractures of any type were important for identifying patients with vertebral injuries. Other types of distracting injuries did not contribute to the sensitivity of the clinical screening criteria in the detection of patients with vertebral injuries.     

Comparison of axial and flexural stresses in lordosis and three buckled configurations of the cervical spine

OBJECTIVE: To calculate and compare combined axial and flexural stresses in lordosis versus buckled configurations of the sagittal cervical curve. DESIGN: Digitized measurements from lateral cervical radiographs of four different shapes were used to calculate axial loads and bending moments on the vertebral bodies of C2-C7.Background. Osteoarthritis and spinal degeneration are factors in neck and back pain. Calculations of stress in clinically occurring configurations of the sagittal cervical spine are rare. METHODS: Center of gravity of the head (inferior-posterior sella turcica) and vertebral body margins were digitized on four different lateral cervical radiographs: lordosis, kyphosis, and two "S"-shapes. Polynomials (seventh degree) and stress concentrations on the concave and convex margins were derived for the shape of the sagittal cervical curvatures from C1 to T1. Moments of inertia were determined from digitizing and the use of an elliptical shell model of cross-section. Moment arms from a vertical line through the center of gravity of the head to the atlas and scaled neck extensor moment arms from the literature were used to compute the vertical component of extensor muscle effort. Segmental lever arms were calculated from a vertical line through C1 to each vertebra. RESULTS: In lordosis, anterior and posterior stresses in the vertebral body are nearly uniform and minimal. In kyphotic areas, combined stresses changed from tension to compression at the anterior vertebral margins and were very large (6-10 times as large in magnitude) compared to lordosis. In kyphotic areas at the posterior vertebral body, the combined stresses changed from compression (in lordosis) to tension. CONCLUSIONS: The stresses in kyphotic areas are very large and opposite in direction compared to a normal lordosis. This analysis provides the basis for the formation of osteophytes (Wolff's Law) on the anterior margins of vertebrae in kyphotic regions of the sagittal cervical curve. This indicates that any kyphosis is an undesirable configuration in the cervical spine. Relevance. Osteophytes and osteoarthritis are found at areas of altered stress and strain. Axial and flexural stresses at kyphotic areas in the sagittal cervical spine are abnormally high.     

Value of the swimming position and arm traction in visualizing the cervicothoracic junction over the standard lateral cervical X-ray

Background

The cervicothoracic junction (CTJ) is often inadequately visualized on lateral cervical X-rays due to anatomic variations and technical factors.

Aims

The aim of this study was to investigate whether the swimmer’s view and arm traction could enhance the image field on the standard lateral cervical (SLC) X-ray.

Methods

The study was conducted in a university hospital in October 2007 with 40 volunteers. SLC X-ray, lateral cervical X-ray in the swimming position, and lateral cervical X-ray with arm traction were performed in the supine position. The enhancements in the image fields were analyzed.

Results

There was a statistically significant difference for the increases in the view of cervical spines between SLC X-ray (12.60?±?7.48) and either lateral cervical X-ray with arm traction (21.73?±?9.78; p?=?0.000) or in the swimming position (21.20?±?14.19; p?=?0.001). Both arm traction and swimming position increased the field of view by approximately 9 mm. Increased visualization of the cervical spine occurred for 24 of the 40 participants using the arm traction view (60.0%) and 23 participants (57.5%) using the swimming position view—results found to be statistically similar according to the?≥?1/3 caudal vertebral height visualized (p?=?0.902). Using the lateral cervical X-ray view, the number of cervical vertebrae visualized differed according to body mass index (BMI)—seven cervical vertebrae were visualized in participants with a BMI?p?=?0.007).

Conclusion

Lateral cervical X-rays with arm traction and swimming position enhance the view of SLC X-rays. An initial SLC X-ray including the lower third of the cervical spine (with C7), arm traction, and swimming position may be beneficial in visualizing the CTJ. However, patients with an increased BMI are unlikely to benefit from all three methods.     

C1 fractures: a review of diagnoses,management options,and outcomes

The atlas is subject to fracture under axial load, often due to traumatic injuries such as shallow dives and automobile accidents. These fractures account for 2–13 % of injuries to the cervical spine [Marcon RM et al. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 68(11):1455-61, 2013]. Fractures of the C1 vertebra are often difficult to diagnose, as there is often no neurological deficit or easily identifiable findings on radiographs. However, injuries to the atlas can be associated with vertebral artery injury and atlantoaxial or atlanto-occipital instability, making prompt and accurate diagnosis imperative. A detailed understanding of the anatomy, inherent stability, and common injury patterns is essential for any surgeon treating spinal trauma. This chapter explores the diagnosis and management of C1 fractures, as well as outcomes after treatment.     

Cervicothoracic junction injury

Much emphasis has been placed on evaluating the entire cervical spine through the seventh cervical vertebra. A case of a missed C7-T1 fracture-subluxation with resultant morbidity is presented. A review of the literature reveals the necessity to view the C7-T1 interspace when evaluating cervical spine radiographs. Recommendations are made suggesting closer scrutiny of this region of the spine.     

Missed cervical spine fracture: chiropractic implications

OBJECTIVE: To discuss the case of a patient with an anterior compression fracture of the cervical spine, which had been overlooked on initial examination. CLINICAL FEATURES: A 36-year-old man was seen at a chiropractic clinic 1 month after diving into the ocean and hitting his head on the ocean floor. He chipped a tooth but denied loss of consciousness. Initial medical examination in the emergency department did not include radiography, but an anti-inflammatory medication was prescribed. Radiographs taken at the chiropractic clinic 1 month later revealed an anterior compression fracture of the C7 vertebra, with migration of the fragment noted on flexion and extension views. INTERVENTION AND OUTCOME: The patient was referred back to his medical doctor for further evaluation and management.He was instructed to wear a Philadelphia collar for 4 weeks. During this time period, he reported "shooting" pain and tingling from his neck into his arms. The patient reported resolution of his neck and arm symptoms at 2.5 months after injury. Follow-up radiographs at 6 months after injury revealed fusion of the fracture fragment with mild residual deformity. At that time, the patient began a course of chiropractic treatment. CONCLUSION: After head trauma, it is essential to obtain a radiograph of the cervical spine to rule out fracture. Chiropractors should proceed with caution, regardless of any prior medical or ancillary evaluation, before commencing cervical spine manipulation after head and neck trauma.     

Comparison of cervical vertebral separation in the supine and seated positions using home traction units

This study was performed for the purpose of comparing the magnitude of cervical vertebral separation during cervical traction in supine and seated positions using home traction units. A repeated measures design with two within-subject factors (type of traction and time) was used. Seventeen asymptomatic volunteers received cervical traction in seated and supine position. Subjects received 5?minutes of static traction in sitting or supine using a force of 13.6?kg while in 15 degrees of neck flexion. A lateral radiograph of the cervical spine was taken before traction force was applied and after five minutes of static traction. Anterior and posterior distances between the inferior border of C2 and the superior border of C7 were measured by a radiologist. After supine traction there were significant increases (p=0.001) in posterior cervical vertebral separation compared to any changes after seated traction. There were no significant changes in anterior vertebral separation during either supine or seated traction positions (p=0.769). Supine cervical traction may be more effective for increasing posterior vertebral separation than seated cervical traction.     

Visualization of C7-T1 on Portable Lateral Cervical Spine Radiographs Using a Lead-lined Acrylic Filter

Objective: To determine whether lead-lined acrylic cervical filters can improve the quality of portable lateral cervical spine (c-spine) radiographs for trauma patients.
Methods: Twenty trauma patients who required portable c-spine x-rays had these taken with a lead filter attached to the collimator of the portable x-ray machine to improve penetration and visualization of lower cervical structures without overpenetrating upper cervical structures. The radiographs of these patients were compared with the first portable c-spine radiographs without filters for 20 controls matched for gender and injury severity. The comparison of radiographs was done by an experienced emergency physician and a neuroradiologist blinded to whether the filter was used.
Results: The two groups were similar for demographic and clinical characteristics. There was a significant improvement in the ability to visualize the C₇-T₁ level for the filter group compared with the control group (65% vs 30%, p < 0.05). Agreement between the physicians was excellent (kappa = 0.79, 95% CI = 0.60-0.99).
Conclusions: Lead-lined acrylic filters improve the ability to visualize the lower c-spine in trauma patients.     

Radiation exposure from cervical spine radiographs

Radiation exposure to hospital personnel during 41 cervical spine radio-graphs of 30 multiply injured patients was prospectively evaluated. A digital dosimeter was attached to the exposed torso of personnel applying upper extremity traction or managing the airway. Radiation exposure was measured during each radiograph. Any exposure of one or more milliroentgen was detectable. No radiograph resulted in a measurable radiation exposure. Multiple radiographs (up to five exposures) also did not register even the minimum recordable exposure, demonstrating that exposure is less than 1.0 mR per radiograph (P < .05). We conclude that hospital personnel, even those applying traction or managing the airway, are not at risk of significant radiation exposure at the time of cervical spine radiographs.     

Undetected hangman's fracture in a patient referred for physical therapy for the treatment of neck pain following trauma

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: This case report describes a patient referred for physical therapy treatment of neck pain who had an underlying hangman's fracture that precluded physical therapy intervention. CASE DESCRIPTION: This case involved a 61-year-old man who had a sudden onset of neck pain after a motor vehicle accident 8 weeks before his initial physical therapy visit. Conventional radiographs of his cervical spine taken on the day of the accident did not reveal any abnormalities. Based on the findings at his initial physical therapy visit, the physical therapist ordered conventional radiographs of the cervical spine to rule out the possibility of an undetected fracture. OUTCOMES: The radiographs revealed bilateral C2 pars interarticularis defects consistent with a hangman's fracture. The patient was referred to a neurosurgeon for immediate review. Based on a normal neurological examination, a relatively low level of pain, and the results of radiographic flexion and extension views of the cervical spine (which revealed no evidence of instability), the neurosurgeon recommended that the patient continue with nonsurgical management. DISCUSSION: In patients with neck pain caused by trauma, physical therapists should be alert for the presence of cervical spine fractures. Even if the initial radiographs are negative for a fracture, additional diagnostic imaging may be necessary for a small number of patients, because they may have undetected injuries that would necessitate medical referral and preclude physical therapy intervention.     

Evaluation of axial and flexural stresses in the vertebral body cortex and trabecular bone in lordosis and two sagittal cervical translation configurations with an elliptical shell model

BACKGROUND: Osteoarthritis and spinal degeneration are factors in neck and back pain. Calculations of stress in clinically occurring configurations of the sagittal cervical spine are rare. OBJECTIVE: To calculate and compare combined axial and flexural stresses in lordosis versus cervical configurations in anterior and vertical sagittal head translated positions. DESIGN: Digitized measurements from lateral cervical radiographs of 3 different shapes were used to calculate axial loads and bending moments on the vertebral bodies of C2-C7. METHODS: An elliptical shell model was used to model horizontal cross-sections of the vertebral bodies of C2 through T1. Axial and flexural stresses were calculated with short compression block equations. Elliptical shell modeling permitted separation of stresses into cortical and inner medullary regions. Digitized radiographic points were used to create polynomials representing the shape of the sagittal cervical curvatures from C1 to T1. To calculate bending moments at each vertebral segment, moment arms from a vertical line through C1 were determined from digitizing. RESULTS: Compared with the normal lordosis, stresses on the anterior vertebral body cortical margins of C5-T1 in the sagittal translated postures are compression rather than tension. At the posterior vertebral bodies in the anteriorly translated position and vertically translated postures, the stresses change from compression to tension at C5 through T1. In absolute value (ABS) compared with values at the same segments in a normal lordosis, the magnitude of the combined anterior stresses in the sagittal postures are higher at C5-C7 (eg, ABS[sigma(straight)/sigma(normal)] approximately 1.25 to 4.25). CONCLUSIONS: Vertebral body stresses are reversed in direction at C5-T1 in sagittal translated postures compared to a normal lordosis. Stress analysis, with implications for bone remodeling, indicates that both sagittal head translation postures, anterior head carriage, and vertical head translation, are undesirable configurations in the cervical spine.     

不同时期颈椎病患者颈椎骨密度变化与椎体变形关系

目的:通过对颈椎病患者X线和颈椎骨密度的测量,探讨不同年龄段颈椎病患者颈椎椎体变形与骨密度变化之间的关系。方法:分3组,正常组20例,平均年龄23岁;颈椎间盘突出症组(颈椎组)22例,平均年龄43岁,腰椎骨密度正常;骨质疏松合并颈椎管狭窄症组(疏松组)28例,平均年龄58岁,腰椎骨密度显示骨质疏松。所有病例测量颈椎侧位C3～C6的椎管、椎体矢状径比,椎体变形指数,C4～C6骨密度。数据进行统计学处理。结果:与正常组相比,颈椎组患者仅在C5,C6椎体出现轻度椎管狭窄,椎体变形,骨密度无明显变化;疏松组则是颈椎高度减低,周径增宽,骨密度升高,3值之间有明显的相关性。结论:椎体骨质疏松的发展与颈椎病的自然发展病程具有明确的相关性,可能是颈椎开始退变进而发展为颈椎病的始动因素之一。     

Influence of age on cervicothoracic spinal curvature: an ex vivo radiographic survey

OBJECTIVE: To define the post-mortem cervicothoracic spinal curvature relative to age. DESIGN: Spinal curvature assessment of lateral cervicothoracic radiographs. BACKGROUND: A late consequence of age is the progressive accentuation of spinal curvatures, particularly the thoracic kyphosis. Little is known about the influence of the kyphosis on the alignment of the cervical spine. METHOD: One hundred and seventy two lateral spinal radiographs (113 males, 59 females) were analysed using two procedures: (1) sagittal curve deformation angles were derived, according to the method of Cobb, for thoracic (T1-T12), cervical (C2-C7) and cervicothoracic junctional regions (C6-T4); and (2) the cervicothoracic curvatures were digitised (C2-T12), to derive the apex of both curves and the inflexion point. RESULTS: A significantly increasing thoracic spinal curvature was determined for both genders, with the mean apex of the kyphosis close to T6. The cervical lordosis tended to flatten with increasing age, particularly in males, with the cervical apex location shifting cranially. This association was significant in older males and females. The mean location of the cervicothoracic curve inflexion point moved from T3 towards C7-T1 with increasing age. CONCLUSION: The cervicothoracic spinal curvature undergoes progressive change through the lifespan with a subsequent cranial migration of the inflexion point between the thoracic kyphosis and cervical lordosis, accompanied by a similar shift in the cervical apex. RELEVANCE: Sensitive measures of spinal curvature have utility in determining changes attributed to age, deformity or trauma on cervicothoracic spinal alignment. The value of assessing the location of curve inflexion lies in the ability to quantify changes in the relationship between different regions of the human spine without problems associated with identifying specific vertebral landmarks.     

Cervical spine fracture following a motor vehicle accident

We present the case of a 50-year-old man who visited our emergency department 12 h after an alcohol-related motor vehicle accident complaining of shoulder pain and neck stiffness. Cervical spine radiographs were obtained and interpreted as normal, and the patient was discharged. Subsequent review by a radiologist raised the question of a second cervical vertebra (C-2) abnormality, and the patient was recalled. Cervical computed tomography (CT) scan revealed an unstable oblique fracture of C-2 and a congenital nonfusion of the arch of C-1. The patient was placed in halo traction, and subsequent radiographs revealed a fracture of the transverse process of C-7. The patient made an uneventful recovery. The limitations of routine cervical radiographs are well-documented, but no feasible alternative exists as a screening procedure. Thus, a certain level of uncertainty must be accepted. Both physician and patient must recognize the limitations inherent in all medical practice and that follow-up examination and treatment are essential.     

T2 radiculopathy: A differential screen for upper extremity radicular pain

Radicular pain in the upper extremity can have a cervical origin terminating at the cervicothoracic junction (C8, T1). Review of the literature suggests cutaneous representations of T2 nerve root to the axilla, posteromedial arm, and lateral forearm, suggesting yet another source of upper extremity radicular pain. A 53-year-old female experienced insidious right upper thoracic pain radiating into the right axilla, upper arm, and lateral forearm (10/10 numerical pain rating scale (NPRS)) of 1-week duration. Medical referral suggested cervical radiculopathy, however, cervical spine examination was unremarkable. She presented with mechanical dysfunction of C8, T1; T1, T2; and T2, T3 vertebral segments with restricted cervical extension. Firm compression over the right lateral aspect of the second and third thoracic vertebrae reproduced her symptoms markedly. There was a predominance of right axillary pain. Cervical extension reproduced local upper thoracic pain. Nine treatment visits for a period of 3 weeks addressed mechanical dysfunction at the cervicothoracic junction and upper thoracic region, comprising manual therapy, corrective exercise, and pain modalities. Reduction of local tenderness, and radiating axillary and right arm pain was observed (2/10 NPRS), with improved cervical extension. The second thoracic intercostal nerve and the adjoining intercostobrachial nerve, medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve, and the posterior brachial cutaneous branch of the radial nerve are speculated to be potential symptom mediators. They have a representation to the axilla, medial and posterior arm, and lateral forearm – a representation supporting the speculation of upper extremity radicular symptoms following mechanical dysfunction of the upper thoracic vertebrae.     

羟基磷灰石/聚酰胺66颈椎融合器在颈椎间盘突出症前路手术重建中的临床疗效

目的探讨纳米羟基磷灰石/聚酰胺66（nano-hydroxyapatite polyamide66,n-HA/PA66）颈椎融合器在颈椎间盘突出症前路手术重建中的临床疗效。方法 2008年12月-2010年6月,对14例颈椎间盘突出症患者行前路椎间盘切除、椎管减压,以n-HA/PA66椎间融合器支撑植骨、钢板螺钉内固定治疗。随访时间3～12个月,平均6.3个月;随访时以日本矫形外科学会（Japan Orthopaedic Assoctiation,JOA）评分改善率评价患者神经功能恢复情况,复查X线片评估椎间融合器植骨融合情况,包括椎间高度及椎间融合器下沉情况。结果 14例患者均成功完成颈椎前路减压手术以及椎间融合器的安放固定。所有患者术前症状均得到不同程度的改善,术后3、6、12个月的JOA改善率分别为87.0%、94.0%、97.0%。影像学检查显示所有患者植骨融合,椎间高度及椎间融合器的位置维持良好,无下沉、移位。结论 n-HA/PA66颈椎间融合器具有早期支撑稳定功能,可有效维持颈椎椎间高度;术后植骨融合率高且便于X线片观察,是颈椎间盘突出症患者前路手术植骨的理想支撑材料,但长期效果需进一步随访观察。     

Anterolateral percutaneous vertebroplasty at C2 for lung cancer metastasis and upper cervical facet joint block

Percutaneous vertebroplasty (PVP) of the axis (C2) is less aggressive than any surgical stabilizing procedure for the upper cervical spine, and it does not restrict the mobility of the upper cervical joints. Disruption of the weight-bearing unit of the second cervical (C2) vertebral body causes excessive load at the relatively small adjacent upper cervical joints. Upper cervical joint block before or after PVP at the C2 level has not been reported thus far. A 67-year-old man was referred to a pain clinic with a 6-month history of increasing neck pain without focal neurologic symptoms. Studies revealed a compression fracture of the C2 vertebral body and invasion of the adjacent soft tissue. To treat the mechanical component of the symptoms, anterolateral PVP at C2 was successfully performed, but the residual suboccipital headache was alleviated only after upper cervical joint block was performed. Thus, upper cervical joint block can be performed to treat the residual suboccipital headache after PVP at C2.     

颈椎过伸性脊髓损伤节段的相关性因素研究

目的 探讨颈椎过伸性损伤的退变性因素、损伤节段的分布及其原因.方法 温州医学院附属东阳医院89例颈椎过伸性损伤患者进行回顾性分析,统计颈椎退行性病变、T2WI相脊髓高信号的位置及颜面部外伤的位置.结果 间盘突出58例,居首位;其后依次为后纵韧带骨化(8例)、发育性椎管狭窄(7例)及椎间盘突出+黄韧带肥厚(6例).单节段T2WI相脊髓高信号在椎间盘水平:C2～3者4例,额部外伤1例;C3～4者12例,额部外伤10例,颧部外伤1例;CA～5者12例,额部外伤5例,额部+颧部外伤1例,额部+下颌部外伤1例;C5～6者11例,额部外伤3例,颧部外伤3例,下颌部外伤2例.单节段脊髓高信号位置不在椎间盘水平4例,脊髓高信号在两个不连续节段10例,脊髓高信号超过2个节段2例,脊髓高信号超过3个节段6例.结论 椎间盘突出是颈椎过伸性损伤患者最多见的退变性因素,T2WI相脊髓高信号的水平与额面部撞击的部位相关,拐点的剪切力(inflection point shear force)合并(或)颈椎过伸的前后挤压力是颈椎过伸性损伤的机制.     

Normal values of cervical vertebral measurements according to age and sex in CT

Introduction

Atlantodental interval (ADI), basion-dental interval (BDI) and the thickness of prevertebral soft tissue (TOPST) measured in lateral cervical radiographs were reported to be useful indicators and indirect signs of underlying cervical spine injuries. However, cervical computed tomography (MDCT) is the first method of imaging used in all trauma patients and upper normal limits (UNLs) of cervical distances according to age and sex are undetermined. Therefore, we aimed to calculate these metrics.