Sublingual misoprostol versus oxytocin infusion to reduce blood loss at cesarean section.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effectiveness of sublingual misoprostol administered immediately after delivery of the neonate at cesarean section, with intravenous oxytocin infusion in prevention of uterine atony and thereby reducing blood loss at cesarean section. METHODS: One hundred women with singleton term pregnancy undergoing elective or emergency lower segment cesarean section under spinal anesthesia were included in this study. They were randomly allocated to receive either misoprostol 400 mug sublingually or intravenous infusion of 20 units of oxytocin soon after delivery of the neonate. The main outcome measures were blood loss at cesarean section, change in hemoglobin levels, need for additional oxytocics and drug related side effects. RESULTS: The mean blood loss estimated was significantly lower in misoprostol group compared to oxytocin group (819 ml versus 974 ml; p = 0.004). The number of women who had blood loss exceeding 500 ml and the change in hemoglobin, however, was comparable between the two groups. There was a need for additional oxytocic therapy in 16% and 18% after use of misoprostol and oxytocin respectively (p = 0.673). The incidence of side effects such as pyrexia, shivering and metallic taste was significantly higher in misoprostol group compared to oxytocin group. CONCLUSION: Sublingual misoprostol appears to be as effective as intravenous infusion of oxytocin in reducing blood loss at cesarean section. However, occurrence of transient side effects such as shivering and pyrexia were noted more frequently with the use of misoprostol.     

Manual removal or spontaneous placental delivery and postcesarean endometritis and bleeding

Objectives: To compare the effect of manual removal and spontaneous delivery of placenta on postcesarean bleeding and endometritis. Methods: In this prospective study 400 pregnant women undergoing elective cesarean delivery were randomly assigned to two groups: spontaneous placental delivery (200 women) and manual placental delivery (200). No antibiotic prophylaxis was administered in either group. The significance of blood loss due to cesarean delivery was defined by a drop in hemoglobin concentration of more than 1 g/dl 24 h after delivery in comparison with preoperative hemoglobin concentration. Endometritis was diagnosed in patients who developed clinical signs of fever and suprapubic tenderness 48 h after delivery. We analyzed the data using a t-test. Results: The overall endometritis rate was 27%, in 40 women in the spontaneous placental delivery group (20%) and 68 women in the manual placental removal group (34%). There was a statistically significant difference between the two groups (P=0.001). Significant blood loss was experienced by 52 women (26%) in the spontaneous placental delivery group vs. 100 women (50%) in the manual placental delivery group. There was a statistically significant difference in blood loss between the two groups (P=0.000; RR=1.92). Conclusion: Endometritis and blood loss in cesarean delivery is increased by manual removal of the placenta compared with the spontaneous method of placental removal.     

Rectally administered misoprostol versus intravenous oxytocin infusion during cesarean delivery to reduce intraoperative and postoperative blood loss

Objective

To compare the efficacy of rectally administered misoprostol with intravenous oxytocin infusion in preventing uterine atony and blood loss during cesarean delivery.

Methods

In this prospective, randomized, double-blind trial, 200 women undergoing cesarean delivery who did not have risk factors for postpartum hemorrhage were randomly allocated to receive either 800 µg of rectal misoprostol at the time of peritoneal incision or an intravenous infusion of oxytocin after delivery of the neonate. Primary outcome measures were estimated amount of intraoperative and postoperative (8 hours) blood loss and changes in hemoglobin levels 24 hours after delivery.

Results

A total of 96 and 94 women were analyzed in the misoprostol and oxytocin groups, respectively. Intraoperative and postoperative blood loss was significantly lower in the misoprostol group than in the oxytocin group (503 vs 592 mL, P = 0.003 and 74 vs 114 mL, P = 0.045, respectively). The incidence of shivering was higher in the misoprostol group (8.3% vs 1.1%, P = 0.018; RR 7.83; 95% confidence interval, 0.99-61.42).

Conclusion

Rectal misoprostol appears to be an effective alternative to intravenous oxytocin in preventing blood loss for routine use during cesarean delivery. Clinical Trials Registration: CTRI/2009/091/000075.     

Accuracy of Blood Loss Estimation and Measurement at Cesarean Birth

This prospective study on 100 women undergoing cesarean delivery was undertaken to evaluate the accuracy of the operating surgeon in estimating the amount of blood loss at the time of surgery. Exclusion factors were bleeding diathesis and cesarean hysterectomy. Blood loss was calculated by direct suction apparatus measurement and by weighing (before/after) lap pads, sponges, and drapes. The operating surgeon (second or third postgraduate year) estimated the blood loss at operation. These results were compared with the calculated blood amount. Estimation within ± 100 mL of the actual blood loss was considered correct. The obstetric resident estimated blood loss correctly less than 50% of the time. When the calculated loss of blood was <800 cc, residents tend to overestimate the blood loss, whereas if it was >800 cc, underestimation was more likely. In this study, obstetric surgeons estimated the blood loss at cesarean section incorrectly in more than half the cases. A simple, more accurate technique of documenting operative blood loss is available.     

Sublingual Misoprostol to Reduce Blood Loss at Cesarean Delivery

Objective

This prospective randomized controlled study was carried out with the purpose of assessing the efficacy of sublingual misoprostol in decreasing intraoperative blood loss and the need for additional uterotonic agents at cesarean delivery.

Methods

One hundred seventy-four women undergoing elective or emergency cesarean delivery were assigned randomly to receive either 400 μg misoprostol or placebo sublingually at the time of cord clamping. An intravenous infusion of 20 units of oxytocin was started in all women at the same time. The primary outcome measures were intraoperative blood loss, need for additional uterotonic agents, and perioperative hemoglobin (Hb) fall.

Results

The maternal demographic factors, indications for cesarean delivery, and high-risk factors were similar between the two groups. Mean intraoperative blood loss was significantly less in misoprostol group as compared with placebo group (595 ± 108 vs. 651 ± 118 ml, P = 0.025). Fewer women needed additional uterotonic agents in misoprostol group (22.2 vs. 42.8 %; P = 0.0035; RR 0.52, 95 % CI 0.33–0.82). Perioperative Hb fall was significantly less in misoprostol group (0.87 ± 0.29 vs. 1.01 ± 0.26 g, P = 0.0018).

Conclusion

Sublingual misoprostol decreases intraoperative blood loss and the need for additional uterotonic agents at cesarean delivery.     

Effect of intravenous tranexamic acid administration on blood loss during and after cesarean delivery

Objective

To assess the effect of intravenous tranexamic acid on blood loss during and after cesarean delivery.

Methods

One hundred pregnant women were randomized to receive either 10 mg/kg of tranexamic acid or placebo intravenously 20 minutes before incision in a double-blind controlled study. Postplacental delivery blood loss, postoperative hemorrhage 2 hours after surgery, and oxytocin administration were recorded.

Results

The patients’ mean age, weight, and duration of surgery were similar between the 2 groups. Mean blood loss was significantly less in the tranexamic acid group compared with the control group for both intraoperative bleeding (262.5 ± 39.6 vs 404.7 ± 94.4 mL) and postoperative bleeding (67.1 ± 6.5 vs 141.0 ± 33.9 mL; P < 0.001), respectively. Oxytocin administration was significantly less in the tranexamic acid group compared with the control group (39 ± 5.8 vs 43 ± 5.4 units; P = 0.001).

Conclusion

Intravenous tranexamic acid decreased intra- and postoperative blood loss and oxytocin administered in patients delivered by cesarean.     

Cesarean section for non-medical reasons.

Cesarean section without medical indication is cited as a factor in the increase in the rate of cesarean delivery in modern obstetric practice. Individual obstetricians often express strong views supporting or refuting the right of women to request operative delivery and their rights to decline or fulfill this request. Such strong opinions may be misplaced as the available evidence does not conclusively support either view-point.     

Effect of a single preoperative dose of sublingual misoprostol on intraoperative blood loss during total abdominal hysterectomy

Objective

To investigate whether use of preoperative misoprostol can reduce blood loss during total abdominal hysterectomy (TAH).

Methods

In a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial at a tertiary care hospital in Kolkata, India, between March 2011 and April 2012, women (n = 132) undergoing TAH with or without bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy for symptomatic myomas were randomly allocated to receive either 400 μg of misoprostol or placebo 30 minutes before surgery. The primary outcome measure was intraoperative blood loss was. The secondary outcomes were postoperative drop in hemoglobin, need for blood transfusion, and incidence of adverse effects.

Results

The 2 groups were similar with regard to demographic and clinical characteristics. There was a significant reduction of blood loss during TAH after sublingual administration of misoprostol compared with placebo before surgery (356 mL vs 435 mL; P = 0.049). The mean postoperative hemoglobin concentration was higher (10.5 g/dL vs 9.5 g/dL; P < 0.001) and the postoperative drop in hemoglobin was smaller (1.1 g/dL vs 1.9 g/dL; P = 0.004) in the misoprostol group than in the placebo group. No significant adverse effects occurred in either group.

Conclusion

The results showed that a single dose of misoprostol administered before abdominal hysterectomy resulted in a significant reduction of blood loss with minimal adverse effects.Clinical Trial Registry India (www.ctri.nic.in): CTRI/2011/091/000216.     

Cesarean section as a cause of chronic pelvic pain.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if the history of cesarean section was associated with chronic pelvic pain, independent of the presence of other conditions such as pelvic adhesions, endometriosis, sequelae of pelvic inflammatory disease, leiomyoma and pelvic varices. METHODS: Retrospective case-control study conducted on 199 patients consecutively admitted from January 1998 to January 2000, 116 of them submitted to laparoscopy for the diagnosis of chronic pelvic pain and 83 asymptomatic patients submitted to tubal ligation by laparoscopy. A logistic regression analysis was used to verify the association between chronic pelvic pain and the history of previous cesarean section. RESULTS: In women with chronic pelvic pain, a history of cesarean section was observed in 67.2% of cases, adhesions in 51.7%, endometriosis in 33.6%, sequelae of pelvic inflammatory disease in 31.9%, leiomyoma in 6.9% and pelvic varices in 11.2%. In asymptomatic women, a history of cesarean section was observed in 38.5%, adhesions in 24.1%, endometriosis in 9.6%, sequelae of pelvic inflammatory disease in 4.8%, leiomyoma in 7.2% and pelvic varices in 3.6%. In a logistic model, chronic pelvic pain was associated with a history of cesarean section (O.R.=3.7), as well as with endometriosis (O.R.=8.5), sequelae of pelvic inflammatory disease (O.R.=10.5). CONCLUSIONS: In the present study cesarean section was associated with chronic pelvic pain. This fact may be the cause of a public health problem in the coming years, due to the raised rates of cesarean section in Brazilian women.     

不同方法对剖宫产术后出血量的估计及出血量大于500ml的危险因素分析

目的:通过比较3种常用的估计产后出血量的方法,选择相对快速、准确估计剖宫产术后出血量的方法;同时对术后出血量500 ml的患者进行相关因素分析。方法:回顾性分析2014年1-12月在我院行剖宫产手术患者583例的临床资料,分别用目测法、血细胞比容(HCT)法、公式计算3种方法对患者的出血量进行评估,以公式计算为标准对出血量500 ml患者的危险因素进行分析。结果:583例患者中,目测法估算出血量500 ml的23例(3.95%),公式计算法估算出血量500 ml的133例(22.81%),HCT法估算出血量500 ml的116例(19.90%)。3种方法相比较,HCT法估算出血量大于500 ml的发生率与公式计算法相近(P0.05),目测法与其他两种方法差异较大(P0.05)。出血量500 ml与HCT术前后变化值呈正相关;出血量大于500 ml时,HCT法在估计产后出血量的灵敏度、准确性上明显高于目测法(76.69%、87.93%与12.78%、73.91%)。产程异常、子宫肌瘤、胎盘因素、巨大儿为出血量500 ml的危险因素。结论:HCT法估计剖宫产术后出血量更接近于公式计算法,尤其在出血量大于500 ml时;HCT法比公式计算法更简便,比目测法更准确。HCT法可在临床中作为初步估计出血量的标准,而更加精确的估计出血量的方法仍应用公式计算法。巨大儿、产程异常等患者更易发生剖宫产术后大量出血。     

Increased postpartum blood loss in pregnancies associated with placental malaria.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the relationship of placental malaria and parity with postpartum blood loss in a malarious area of Tanzania. METHODS: A total of 706 uncomplicated vaginal deliveries were studied at Muhimbili University Hospital, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Maternal age, parity, date of delivery, birth weight, presence of placental malaria, stillbirths, and delivery complications were noted. Collection and measurement of vaginal blood loss commenced immediately following birth using a plastic vinyl sheet placed underneath the mother. The bed was divided in the middle to allow the blood to drain into a bucket. Blood loss was measured for a period of 2 h following delivery. RESULTS: In singleton births the mean postpartum blood loss was 170 mL in nulliparas and 187 mL in multiparas (p=0.017). Blood loss was 400 mL or greater in 23 women (3.4%) and 500 mL or greater in 10 women (1.5%). Mean postpartum bleeding tended to increase with maternal age, parity, and birth weight. In logistic regression the odds ratio for a blood loss of 400 mL or greater was significantly increased for women with placental malaria (3.2; 95% confidence interval, 1.1-9.0; p=0.028), after adjusting for a birth weight greater than 4000 g. Placental malaria showed a marked seasonal pattern, which corresponded to the months of peak prevalence for a postpartum blood loss of 400 mL or greater (p=0.007). CONCLUSION: A postpartum blood loss of 400 mL or greater should be considered a possible complication of placental malaria.     

术中自体血液回输在剖宫产术中出血的应用初探

目的：探讨术中自体血液回输（intraoperative cell salvage,IOCS）于剖宫产术中应用的可行性及安全性。方法：回顾性分析2013年1月-2017年12月于陆军军医大学附属新桥医院因前置胎盘行剖宫产术571例患者,观察组（264例）同意并接受术中自体血液回输,对照组（307例）仅签署了知情同意书表示必要时进行异体血输注。比较2组一般资料、围手术期情况和输血后并发症等指标。结果：观察组术中出血量较对照组多,差异有统计学意义（Z=-6.993,P=0.000）。观察组输血总量≥2 000 mL者比例高于对照组,血浆、冷沉淀、血小板输注量也高于对照组,但异体红细胞悬液输注量较对照组少,差异有统计学意义（均P＜0.05）。2组患者术后入住重症监护室（ICU）时间、血红蛋白（Hb）、红细胞压积（HCT）和血小板计数（PLT）水平比较差异均无统计学意义（均P＞0.05）。2组患者输血后24 h内不良反应发生率比较,差异无统计学意义（均P＞0.05）。结论：前置胎盘患者剖宫产术中运用自体血回输安全可行。     

剖宫产术中回收式自体输血研究进展

迄今为止,产后出血仍然是全世界范围内孕产妇死亡的首要原因,输血在治疗产后出血中起着非常重要的作用,尤其是产后大出血及难治性产后出血,临床多以异体血的输注为主,自体输血很少见。由于术中回收式自体输血（IOCS）可能导致医源性羊水栓塞、同种异体免疫性溶血等,在一定程度上阻碍了其在剖宫产术中的开展。但近年随着我国高危、瘢痕子宫等孕妇增多及自体输血相关技术的提高,IOCS在剖宫产术中的临床应用逐渐增多,其有效性及安全性得到证实,不仅可以减少异体输血,防止异体输血的并发症与不良反应发生,某种程度上也解决了血液资源稀缺问题,同时减轻了产妇及社会经济负担,降低妊娠不良结局发生率,甚至挽救产妇生命。现对剖宫产术中血液回收和回输有关问题及临床应用进行综述。     

Measurement of blood loss at childbirth and postpartum.

OBJECTIVE: To accurately measure blood loss during childbirth in a developing country. METHOD: The alkaline hematin technique was used to quantify blood lost during delivery and 24 h postpartum in 158 women in Pemba Island, Zanzibar. RESULT: Women were found to lose less blood during childbirth and 24 h postpartum than previously reported. Compared with laboratory values, nurse-midwives approximated blood loss accurately (mean difference, i.e., mean underestimation by nurse-midwives, 4.90 mL); however, their imprecision was greater for higher laboratory values. CONCLUSION: This study may prompt further investigation, as no comparable data exist for developing countries where maternal mortality is high and severe anemia prevalent.     

Risk and risk estimation of placental abruption

OBJECTIVE: Several variables related to increased risk of placental abruption are also risk factors for venous thromboembolism. Prior second trimester-, third trimester, and repeated fetal loss are reported to be associated to thrombophilias. However, it is yet not known if they are also related to placental abruption. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective case-control study of 161 women with placental abruption and 2371 unselected gravidae without placental abruption. The medical files were scrutinized and the selected variables were investigated in relation to the development of placental abruption. RESULTS: As compared to controls, previous second trimester-, third trimester-, repeated fetal loss, and prior placental abruption were related to a 3-, 13-, 3-, and a 25-fold increased risk of placental abruption, respectively. Several other factors were associated with a roughly three-fold increased risk such as: preeclampsia, IUGR, high maternal age (>35), family history of venous thromboembolism, smoking, and multiple birth. A risk score was created and as compared with those with no risk factors present, the risk of placental abruption was increasing from 2.5-fold for those with risk score=1, to almost 100-fold for risk score 4 or above. CONCLUSION: Easily obtainable information might be used to classify the risk of placental abruption.     

Cesarean section in Ethiopia: prevalence and sociodemographic characteristics

Objective: The objective of this study was to assess the prevalence and sociodemographic characteristics of cesarean section in Ethiopia.

Methods: We used data collected for Ethiopia Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) conducted in 2000, 2005, 2011, and 2016. A two-stage, stratified, clustered random sampling design was used to gather information from women who gave birth within the 5-year period before each of the surveys. We analyzed the data to identify sociodemographic characteristics associated with cesarean section using log-Poisson regression models.

Results: The national cesarean section rate increased from 0.7% in 2000 to 1.9% in 2016, with increases across seven of the eleven administrative regions of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa had the highest cesarean section rate (21.4%) in 2016 and the greatest increase since 2000. In the adjusted analysis, women who gave birth in private health facility had a 78.0% higher risk of cesarean section (adjusted prevalence ratio (aPR) (95% CI) 1.78 (1.22, 2.58)) compared with women who gave birth in public health facility. Having four or more births was associated with a lower risk of cesarean section compared with first births (aPR (95% CI) 0.36 (0.16, 0.79)).

Conclusions: The Ethiopian national cesarean section rate is about 2%, but the rate varies widely among administrative regions, suggesting unequal access. Cesarean sections were highest among urban mothers, first births, births to women with higher education, and births to women from the richest quintile of household wealth.     

Efficacy of tranexamic acid in decreasing blood loss in elective caesarean delivery

Objective: To evaluate the efficacy of tranexamic acid (TA) in decreasing blood loss during and after elective caesarean section (CS).

Methods: This prospective randomized trial was conducted among 124 pregnant women subjected to term elective CS. Patients were equally divided into two groups. Study group received 10?mg/kg TA intravenously 5?min before skin incision while the control group did not. In addition, both groups received 10 units oxytocin and 1?ml ergometrine after delivery of the fetus. Blood loss in both groups was measured from placental delivery to end of the surgery and from end of the surgery to 2?h postpartum. Hemoglobin and hematocrit values were determined preoperatively and on the third day postpartum (before discharge) for all cases. Maternal and neonatal adverse effects in study groups were recorded.

Results: TA group showed lower amount of blood loss (391?ml) when compared to control group (597?ml). Risk estimation has revealed that treatment with TA resulted in decrease in risk of postpartum blood loss by 30%. Hemoglobin and hematocrit levels were significantly lower in the control group on the third post-operative day.

Conclusion: TA reduces blood loss during and immediately after CS. Its use in caesarean delivery may be considered especially in cases where blood loss is expected to be high or in anemic patients.