颈椎后凸畸形的临床特征和外科治疗策略

目的 分析颈椎后凸畸形的临床特征和治疗策略.方法 自2006年3月至2009年10月治疗颈椎后凸畸形31例.根据患者的临床特点和影像学表现对其采用不同的治疗方法.手术组9例:男性4例,女性5例,年龄17～72岁,平均35岁;其中继发性后凸畸形4例,特发性颈椎后凸畸形5例.保守治疗组22例:男性11例,女性11例,年龄14～40岁,平均29岁,均为特发性颈椎后凸畸形.手术组:术前及术后1周,按美国脊髓损伤协会的脊髓损伤神经分级标准(AISA)对患者进行评估,术后定期复查颈椎正侧位X线片,并在手术后1周及之后每6个月复查1次颈椎MRI,以评估患者矫形、融合效果及脊髓减压情况.保守治疗组:每个月拍摄颈椎正侧位X线片评估治疗效果.分析此类患者的临床特征及治疗策略.结果 手术组:术后3 d颈椎侧位片示:Cobb角平均-1.3°(术前54.2°),AISA评分神经功能明显改善,随访时间6～18个月,未见内固定和融合失败.保守组:治疗后4个月Cobb角平均-5.4°(治疗前11.2°),颈项肩背痛症状基本消失,随访3～24个月未见症状复发.结论 早期采用体位疗法、石膏支具纠正颈椎生物力学的失衡可以阻止颈椎后凸畸形的发展.根据患者的临床特征,采用个性化的治疗方案,能够充分矫正严重的颈椎后凸畸形.     

神经纤维瘤病性颈椎后凸畸形的外科治疗

目的:探讨神经纤维瘤病性颈椎后凸畸形的外科治疗方法及其疗效.方法:1998年1月至2006年6月收治6例神经纤维瘤病合并颈椎后凸畸形患者,Cobb角平均52.7°,平均年龄20.8岁(12～38岁),1例术前Cobb角42°且柔软度较好的患者采用单纯前路矫形,余5例畸形严重且较为僵硬的患者采用前后路联合矫形并应用颈椎截骨,所有患者术中应用运动诱发电位(MEP)监测.术后通过影像学评估及JOA评分对手术效果进行评价.结果:术后无严重神经系统并发症发生,1例前后路手术患者术后出现持续颈部及肩部疼痛,经保守治疗半年后好转.平均随访2.8年(1～6年),影像学随访全部患者在术后1年时均获得骨性融合.JOA评分由术前平均11.2分改善至术后平均14.3分(P<0.01),末次随访时平均14.7分.术后后凸畸形明显改善,Cobb角平均0.17°,末次随访时后凸Cobb角平均2.2°.结论:神经纤维瘤病合并颈椎后凸畸形的手术治疗难度较大,风险较高,通过术前仔细评估、选择合适的手术策略、术中脊髓监测,结合较为熟练的外科操作,可以取得良好的矫形,获得神经功能的康复.     

幼儿胸腰椎置人椎弓根螺钉可行性临床研究

目的 探讨在1～3岁的幼儿下胸椎和腰椎置入椎弓根螺钉的可行性和安全性.方法 2002年1月至2007年1月,对10例1～3岁下胸椎和腰椎疾患患儿应用成人颈椎侧块螺钉进行固定矫形,男7例,女3例;年龄1～3岁,其中1～2岁4例,2～3岁6例.先天性半椎体畸形合并脊柱侧凸7例,均为完全分节的单个游离半椎体,不合并对侧分节不全;椎体肿瘤2例,为合并椎管内占位的嗜酸性肉芽肿;脊柱结核1例,为中心型椎体结核并后凸畸形.病变椎体:L3(1例),L2(3例),L1(4例),T12(2例).病变节段为1～2个.经测量T11～L5椎弓根的上下径为5.2～9.0 mm,平均6.5 mm;左右径为3.5～8.0 mm,平均4.6mm.结果 10例患儿共置入40枚螺钉,未发生大血管和神经损伤.3例患儿CT扫描发现各有1枚螺钉置人偏外,并穿破椎弓根和椎体的外缘皮质,其中1例患儿出现1枚螺钉过长超出椎体前缘,但均未损伤血管及内脏.随访时间2～3年,平均2.6年.1例L3椎体嗜酸性肉芽肿患儿,术后6个月时X线片显示L2～L4局部有轻度后凸畸形,但3年后后凸畸形基本自行矫正.10例内固定物在手术后2～3年取出,在随访期间未见内固定物松动及断裂.结论 在1～3岁幼儿的下胸椎和腰椎置入椎弓根螺钉在技术上可行、安全.     

青少年颈椎长节段严重后凸畸形手术方案的个体化选择

目的 探讨青少年期(10～19岁)严重非创伤性、非炎症性颈椎长节段后凸畸形的个体化手术治疗方案.方法 回顾性总结分析2000年7月至2007年7月收治的12例年龄在12～19岁的颈椎长节段严重后凸畸形患者的临床资料和手术治疗过程及治疗效果.分析12例患者的影像学资料发现其共同点为:(1)后凸的顶椎位于C4或C5;(2)后凸弧内的椎体均前低后高呈楔形变及椎间隙明显变窄;(3)MRI显示与顶椎相对应的椎管均有不同程度的狭窄和硬膜囊受压.以下几种情况为不同病例的个体化特点:(1)合并C1.2旋转半脱位者2例;(2)合并C2半脱位2例;(3)C4～C7椎体严重营养不良2例;(4)C2～C5椎体严重营养不良1例;(5)C6.7椎间隙向前喇叭口样张开2例.结果 根据对每个病例特点的具体分析采用针对性的手术入路.前方入路2例,后方入路2例,后方入路联合前方入路7例,一期前-后-前入路1例.后凸Cobb角由手术前平均73°矫正至平均15°.随访3个月～6年,1例在融合固定的下端发生新的成角和节段性不稳,其余11例矫正度无明显丢失.3例瘫痪者均恢复正常神经功能.结论 对不同病因、不同畸形程度和不同继发性病理改变的青少年颈椎后凸畸形患者应采用合理的个体化的手术治疗方案才能有效地矫正畸形和解除脊髓压迫.     

后路半椎体切除短节段融合固定术治疗儿童腰骶段半椎体畸形及近端代偿侧凸自发矫正的影响因素

目的:评价后路半椎体切除、短节段融合固定术治疗儿童先天性腰骶部半椎体畸形的效果,探讨术后近端代偿侧凸(PCC)自发矫正的影响因素.方法:回顾性分析2012年1月～2018年12月我院诊治的25例腰骶部半椎体患儿的临床资料,其中男14例,女11例,年龄3.3～13.0岁(6.74±2.81岁),L4～S1半椎体10例,L...     

重度青少年特发性颈椎后凸畸形的手术治疗

目的 探讨重度青少年特发性颈椎后凸畸形的临床特征和手术策略.方法 回顾性分析2003年7月至2007年1月收治的12例重度青少年特发性颈椎后凸畸形患者的临床资料,术前后凸Cobb角55°～73°(平均61°).先以在过伸侧位X线片上测量的椎体后缘切线夹角为依据,决定颈椎后部的椎板及小关节等的截骨角度及范围,行颈后路截骨及前路松解术.术后行颅骨牵引使松解后颈椎后凸达到最大可能的矫正,7～10 d后二期行颈前路矫形、植骨内固定术.分别于术后第3天、3及6个月、1及2年摄颈椎正侧位X线片、MRI,观察矫形效果,植骨融合情况及内固定位置并对比手术前后临床症状的变化.结果 患者畸形外观明显改善,颈部疼痛症状全部消失,神经功能明显恢复.术后MRI显示:颈椎生理曲度重建,后凸畸形区域脑脊液线清晰,脊髓未见压迫.术后第3天X线片显示:后凸Cobb角为-12.3°～11.2°(平均-2.0°).除1例AISA神经功能评分为D级外其他11例AISA神经功能评分均为E级.结论 重度青少年特发性颈椎后凸畸形有其特有的临床特征,对该类患者进行全面评估,分期手术及手术间期持续牵引是较为理想的外科治疗方法.     

儿童脊柱畸形的支具治疗

目的:探讨应用矫形支具治疗各种儿童脊柱畸形的临床效果及意义.方法:对本院1998年1月～2001年5月采用热塑支具治疗或辅助治疗的138例脊柱畸形患儿进行分组观察分析,包括特发性脊柱侧凸94例、先天性脊柱侧凸29例、脊柱后凸6例、脊柱结核7例、外伤性脊柱侧弯2例.结果:全部病儿均经过2～4年的随访,绝大多数有不同程度的畸形矫正,基本上达到矫治的预期目的.结论:由于儿童的病理及生理特点,支具对各种脊柱畸形均有不同程度的矫正作用,可有效地控制早期脊柱侧凸的发展,甚至可以避免手术或减轻手术患者侧凸的严重程度以及手术难度,减少并发症的发生.     

青少年特发性颈椎后凸畸形的影像学特征及其临床指导意义

目的:分析青少年特发性颈椎后凸畸形患者的影像学特征,探讨评价后凸曲度的可靠方法。方法:对23例青少年特发性颈椎后凸畸形患者的影像学资料进行分析,在矢状位X线片上测量C2～C7的后切线角及Cobb角、后凸节段后切线角及Cobb角、后凸累及椎体数、后凸顶点位置,计算颈椎曲度指数(CI)及后凸指数(KI),并进行相关性分析。结果:本组后凸节段C2～C5 11例,C2～C6 5例,C3～C6 7例,后凸平均累及椎体4.2个(平均累及3.2个椎间隙);后凸顶点均位于椎体的后上缘,位于C4 16例(69.57%),C5 7例(30.43%);C2～C7后切线角9.8°～75.1°,平均37.1°±16.7°;C2～C7的Cobb角为4.7°～68.3°,平均35.6°±14.5°;后凸节段后切线角19.8°～120.6°,平均54.8°±23.9°;后凸节段Cobb角21.8°～96.3°,平均53.7°±19.7°;颈椎曲度指数(CI)8.6～79.8,平均37.7±20.5;后凸指数(KI)15.2～141.9,平均53.0±29.1。统计学分析显示,后凸指数与后凸角度呈高度正相关。结论:青少年特发性颈椎后凸畸形的后凸顶点位于椎体的后上缘,后凸范围仅累及部分颈椎节段,后凸节段的后凸指数可准确地反映后凸畸形的严重程度。     

青少年重度颈椎后凸畸形手术矫正

[目的]探讨青少年重度颈椎后凸畸形的手术方式、临床疗效及矢状面平衡.[方法]对2012年7月～2017年6月手术矫正的重度青少年颈椎后凸畸形患者18例进行回顾性分析.其中,采用前路手术13例,前后联合手术5例.采用VAS、NDI和JOA评分,以及颈椎后凸Cobb角(RKA)、C2～C,角、C0～C2角、C7倾斜角、C2...     

颈椎前路减压植骨融合术后颈椎后凸畸形的原因分析

目的：探讨颈椎前路椎体植骨融合术后颈椎后凸畸形的原因。方法：随诊1982年8月-2000年12月274例行颈椎前路减压、单纯植骨融合术的病例，对其中确诊为颈椎后凸畸形患者的手术减压节段、植骨方式、骨融合情况及术后颈椎后凸畸形的进展对疗效的影响进行分析。结果：随访2年3个月～7年6个月，平均4年1个月，17例患者确诊为颈椎后凸畸形；术后1年时融合节段前柱短缩明显，颈椎后凸畸形最明显，其中12例为双节段减压、Keystone式植骨；8例后期颈椎植骨融合节段上下相邻椎体不稳：17例患者术前JOA评分平均10．2分．术后1年平均15．2分，末次随访时为15．6分。结论：单纯颈椎前路减压植骨融合术后因减压节段和值骨方式的不同使融合节段前柱短缩及植骨融合节段上下相邻椎体不稳是颈椎后凸畸形的直接原因。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.