Comparison of different biogenic matrices seeded with cultured Schwann cells for bridging peripheral nerve defects

Abstract

Tissue-engineering as laboratory based alternative to human autografts and allografts provides "custom made organs" cultured from patient's material. To overcome the limited donor nerve availability different biologic nerve grafts were engineered in a rat sciatic nerve model: cultured isogenic Schwann cells were implanted into acellular autologous matrices: veins, muscles, nerves, and epineurium tubes. Autologous nerve grafts, and the respective biogenic material without Schwann cells served as control. After 6 weeks regeneration was assessed clinically, histologically and morphometrically. The PCR analysis showed that the implanted Schwann cells remain within all the grafts. A good regeneration was noted in the muscle-Schwann cell-group, while regeneration quality in the other groups (with or without Schwann cells) was impaired. The muscle-Schwann cell graft showed a systematic and organized regeneration including a proper orientation of regenerated fibers. All venous and epineurium grafts had a more disorganized regeneration. Seemingly, the lack of endoneural tube like structures in vein grafts lead to impaired regeneration. And, apparently,the beneficial effects of implanted Schwann cells into a large luminal structure can only be demonstrated to a limited extent if endoneural like structures are lacking. A tube offers less area for Schwann cell adhesion and it is more likely to collapse. This underlines the role of the basal lamina, or at least an inner structure acting as scaffold in axonal regeneration. Although the conventional nerve graft remains the gold standard, the implantation of Schwann cells into an acellular muscle provides a biogenic graft with basal lamina tubes as pathway for regenerating axons and the positive effects of Schwann cells producing neurotrophic and neurotropic factors, and thus, supporting axonal regeneration.     

BD™ PuraMatrix™ peptide hydrogel seeded with Schwann cells for peripheral nerve regeneration

This study investigated the effects of a membrane conduit filled with a synthetic matrix BD™ PuraMatrix™ peptide (BD) hydrogel and cultured Schwann cells on regeneration after peripheral nerve injury in adult rats.After sciatic axotomy, a 10 mm gap between the nerve stumps was bridged using ultrafiltration membrane conduits filled with BD hydrogel or BD hydrogel containing Schwann cells. In control experiments, the nerve defect was bridged using either membrane conduits with alginate/fibronectin hydrogel or autologous nerve graft. Axonal regeneration within the conduit was assessed at 3 weeks and regeneration of spinal motoneurons and recovery of muscle weight evaluated at 16 weeks postoperatively.Schwann cells survived in the BD hydrogel both in culture and after transplantation into the nerve defect. Regenerating axons grew significantly longer distances within the conduits filled with BD hydrogel when compared with the alginate/fibronectin hydrogel and alginate/fibronectin with Schwann cells. Addition of Schwann cells to the BD hydrogel considerably increased regeneration distance with axons crossing the injury gap and entering into the distal nerve stump. The conduits with BD hydrogel showed a linear alignment of nerve fibers and Schwann cells.The number of regenerating motoneurons and recovery of the weight of the gastrocnemius muscle was inferior in BD hydrogel and alginate/fibronectin groups compared with nerve grafting. Addition of Schwann cells did not improve regeneration of motoneurons or muscle recovery.The present results suggest that BD hydrogel with Schwann cells could be used within biosynthetic conduits to increase the rate of axonal regeneration across a nerve defect.     

Peripheral nerve regeneration through nerve guides seeded with adult Schwann cells

A.D. Ansselin, T. Fink and D.F. Davey (1997) Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology 23 , 387–398
Peripheral nerve regeneration through nerve guides seeded with adult Schwann cells
This study tested the usefulness of Schwann cells in the repair of a severed nerve with a biosynthetic bridge or guide. Reinforced collagen nerve guides were used to bridge an 18 mm gap in the sciatic nerve of 21 young adult rats. The animals were divided into three groups and the guides were filled with: (i) more than 0.5 × 10⁶ cultured syngeneic adult Schwann cells (group L, n = 12); (ii) less than 0.5 × 10⁶ Schwann cells (Group S, n = 6); and (iii) phosphate buffered saline (control, n = 3). Schwann cells were pre-labelled with Hoechst dye. Regeneration was assessed functionally and histologically at 1, 2, 3 and 6+ months after surgery. Group L animals showed numerous regenerated axons surrounded by implanted Schwann cells within the first month. The total number of myelinated fibres (12.5 × 10³) remained above normal unoperated values (7 × 10³) in long-term animals. Regenerated axons were found in Group S in the third month, but no Hoechst labelled cells were found. The number of myelinated fibres (3.9 × 10³) remained below normal values in long-term animals. Control guides failed to support axonal regeneration. Functional recovery was evident at week 20 (Group L) and week 30 (Group S) after surgery, with no difference in function between the two groups by the end of the study. Supplementing guides with Schwann cells enhances regeneration of peripheral axons over a distance normally prohibitive. This effect is greatest in the early stages of regeneration (1–3 months) and is dependent on the number of cells implanted.     

复合许旺细胞的猪肠黏膜下层桥接修复周围神经缺损

背景：小肠黏膜下层作为一种天然的生物材料，能提供适合神经生长的三维支架，而许旺细胞又在神经再生过程中发挥重要作用。如果能将许旺细胞种植在小肠黏膜下层，用来桥接周围神经缺损，理论上更有利于神经的长入，极有可能获得良好的实验效果。 目的：应用复合有许旺细胞的小肠黏膜下层桥接周围神经缺损，观察桥接后神经生长情况。 设计、时间及地点：对比观察实验，于2008-01在深圳市松岗人民医院完成。 材料：取健康成年猪的新鲜近段空肠制备小肠黏膜下层。 方法：SD大鼠20只随机分成2组，即复合有许旺细胞的小肠黏膜下层桥接组、自体神经移植组。每组10只。首先在距坐骨神经出口1 cm处用双面刀片切取1 cm长度的坐骨神经，造成神经缺损模型。然后分别用复合有许旺细胞的小肠黏膜下层桥接、自体神经移植桥接。 主要观察指标：于术后6，12周自近端缝合口的近端至远端缝合口的远端切取大鼠的坐骨神经，用于病理组织学观察并进行图像分析。同时用生理示波器测定大鼠两侧坐骨神经的潜伏期和诱发电位的波幅。 结果：复合有许旺细胞的小肠黏膜下层桥接神经组可见有再生神经组织长过缺损，呈条索状连续，且神经纤维多集中在小肠黏膜下层形成的桥接管周缘区域，而中心区域可见胶原组织且孔隙较多。复合有许旺细胞的小肠黏膜下层桥接神经组潜伏期的延迟率均高于自体神经移植组（P < 0.05），而诱发电位的波幅恢复率均低于自体神经对照组（P < 0.05）。复合有许旺细胞的小肠黏膜下层桥接神经组轴突的平均直径、单位面积的轴突数量和神经组织所占的百分比均低于自体神经移植组（P < 0.05）。 结论：复合有许旺细胞的小肠黏膜下层具有促进周围神经轴突再生的作用，但较自体神经移植略差。     

Schwann cells seeded in acellular nerve grafts improve functional recovery

Introduction: This study evaluated whether Schwann cells (SCs) from different nerve sources transplanted into cold‐preserved acellular nerve grafts (CP‐ANGs) would improve functional regeneration compared with nerve isografts. Methods: SCs isolated and expanded from motor and sensory branches of rat femoral and sciatic nerves were seeded into 14mm CP‐ANGs. Growth factor expression, axonal regeneration, and functional recovery were evaluated in a 14‐mm rat sciatic injury model and compared with isografts. Results: At 14 days, motor or sensory‐derived SCs increased expression of growth factors in CP‐ANGs versus isografts. After 42 days, histomorphometric analysis found CP‐ANGs with SCs and isografts had similar numbers of regenerating nerve fibers. At 84 days, muscle force generation was similar for CP‐ANGs with SCs and isografts. SC source did not affect nerve fiber counts or muscle force generation. Conclusions: SCs transplanted into CP‐ANGs increase functional regeneration to isograft levels; however SC nerve source did not have an effect. Muscle Nerve 49 : 267–276, 2014     

FK506 enhances regeneration of axons across long peripheral nerve gaps repaired with collagen guides seeded with allogeneic Schwann cells

We assessed the effects of FK506 administration on regeneration after a 6-mm gap repair with a collagen guide seeded with allogeneic Schwann cells (SCs) in the mouse sciatic nerve. SCs were isolated from predegenerated adult sciatic nerves and expanded in culture using a defined medium, before being seeded in the collagen guide embedded in Matrigel. Functional reinnervation was evaluated by noninvasive methods to determine recovery of motor, sensory, and autonomic functions in the hindpaw over 4 months postoperation. Histological analysis of the regenerated nerves was performed at the end of the study. Using simple collagen guides for tubulization repair, treatment with an immunosuppressant dose of FK506 (5 mg/kg/day) resulted in significant improvement of the onset and the degree of reinnervation. While the introduction of allogeneic SCs did not improve regeneration versus a collagen guide filled only with Matrigel, treatment with FK506 allowed for successful regeneration in all the mice and for significant improvement in the levels of functional recovery. Compared with the untreated group, there was greater survival of transplanted pre-labeled SCs in the FK506-treated animals. Morphologically, the best nerve regeneration (in terms of nerve caliber and numbers of myelinated axons) was obtained with SC-seeded guides from FK506-treated animals. Thus, FK506 should be considered as adjunct therapy for various types of tubulization repair.     

Syngeneic Schwann cells derived from adult nerves seeded in semipermeable guidance channels enhance peripheral nerve regeneration.

At present, clinical strategies to repair injured peripheral nerve concentrate on efforts to attain primary suture of the cut nerve ends. If this is not possible, autografts are used to unite the separated nerve segments. Both strategies are based on the recognition that the Schwann cells resident in the peripheral nerve trunk play a crucial role in the regenerative process. Neither strategy may be feasible, however, in extensive or multiple injuries because the amount of autograft material is limited, and allografts are subject to immune rejection. Artificially produced nerve bridges constructed of autologous Schwann cells seeded in guidance channels could be used to overcome these limitations. In the present experiments, the potential of Schwann cells derived from adult nerves and seeded in permselective guidance channels to promote neurite regeneration across an 8 mm nerve gap was evaluated in transected rat sciatic nerves. Immunological sequalae were evaluated by comparing Schwann cells from syngeneic and heterologous rat strains. Schwann cells from either adult outbred (Sprague-Dawley, CD) rats or inbred (Fisher, F) rats were suspended in a Matrigel solution at a density of 80 x 10(6) cells/ml (CD) or 40, 80, or 120 x 10(6) cells/ml (F-40, F-80, and F-120 channels, respectively). Channels containing Schwann cells were compared to sciatic nerve autografts, empty channels, or channels filled with Matrigel alone. One day after seeding permselective synthetic guidance channels with a Schwann cell suspension, a central cable of Schwann cells oriented along the axis of the tube was formed due to syneresis of the hydrogel. By 3 weeks postimplantation, regenerating axons had grown into all channels and autografts. Sciatic nerve autografts supported extensive regeneration, containing 4-5 x 10(4) myelinated axons at the graft midpoint. The ability of channels containing syngeneic Schwann cells to foster regeneration was dependent on the Schwann cell seeding density. At the channel's midpoint, the myelinated axon population in F-120 tubes was intermediate between that in sciatic nerve autografts and F-80 channels, and was significantly higher than in F-40 or control channels. The nerve cable in Schwann cell-containing tubes consisted of larger, more organotypic fascicles than acellular control channels. In contrast, heterologous (CD) Schwann cells elicited a strong immune reaction that impeded nerve regeneration. The present study shows that cultured adult syngeneic Schwann cells seeded in permselective synthetic guidance channels support extensive peripheral nerve regeneration.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

壳聚糖导管桥接周围神经缺损的实验研究

目的　应用壳聚糖神经导引管作为神经再生室桥接大鼠坐骨神经缺损 ,观察对神经再生的作用。方法　选用体重 2 0 0± 2 0g的Wistar大鼠 30只 ,手术造成右侧坐骨神经长约 12mm的缺损 ,以壳聚糖导管桥接神经缺损 ,以左侧正常坐骨神经作为对照 ,分别于术后 4、 12、 2 4周进行大体及显微解剖观察、组织学检查、免疫组化检查、电镜观察和神经电生理测定。结果　术后大鼠右后肢感觉、运动功能有不同程度的恢复 ;光镜和电镜组织学检查发现术后 12周再生轴突已长过神经缺损间隙 ,2 4周再生完全 ,髓鞘化良好 ,神经纤维排列整齐规则 ,导管大部分被降解吸收 ;神经电生理检查在术后 2 4周记录到再生坐骨神经的复合动作电位。结论　壳聚糖神经导引管为大鼠坐骨神经再生提供一个良好的再生微环境 ,再生坐骨神经功能恢复良好     

Ganglioside promotes the bridging of sciatic nerve defects in cryopreserved peripheral nerve allografts

Previous studies have shown that exogenous gangliosides promote nervous system regeneration and synapse formation.In this study,10 mm sciatic nerve segments from New Zealand rabbits were thawed from cryopreservation and were used for the repair of left sciatic nerve defects through allograft bridging.Three days later,1 m L ganglioside solution(1 g/L) was subcutaneously injected into the right hind leg of rabbits.Compared with non-injected rats,muscle wet weight ratio was increased at 2–12 weeks after modeling.The quantity of myelinated fibers in regenerated sciatic nerve,myelin thickness and fiber diameter were elevated at 4–12 weeks after modeling.Sciatic nerve potential amplitude and conduction velocity were raised at 8 and 12 weeks,while conduction latencies were decreased at 12 weeks.Experimental findings indicate that ganglioside can promote the regeneration of sciatic nerve defects after repair with cryopreserved peripheral nerve allografts.     

Histological observation on acellular nerve grafts co-cultured with Schwann cells for repairing defects of the sciatic nerve

IN T R O D U C T IO N The bridging of nerve gaps is still one of the m ajor problem s in peripheral nerve surgery. The use of an artificial nerve conduit containing viable Schw ann cell is one of the m ost prom ising ap- proaches to repair nerve defects. …     

Differentially promoted peripheral nerve regeneration by grafted Schwann cells over-expressing different FGF-2 isoforms

Artificial nerve grafts are needed to reconstruct massive defects in the peripheral nervous system when autologous nerve grafts are not available in sufficient amounts. Nerve grafts containing Schwann cells display a suitable substrate for long-distance regeneration. We present here a comprehensive analysis of the in vivo effects of different isoforms of fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) on peripheral nerve regeneration across long gaps. FGF-2 isoforms were provided by grafted, genetically modified Schwann cells over-expressing 18-kDa-FGF-2 and 21-/23-kDa-FGF-2, respectively. Functional tests evaluated motor and sensory recovery. Additionally, morphometrical analyses of regenerated nerves were performed 3 and 6 months after grafting. Distinct regeneration promoting effects of the different FGF-2 isoforms were found. 18-kDa-FGF-2 mediated inhibitory effects on the grade of myelination of regenerating axons, whereas 21-/23-kDa-FGF-2 mediated early recovery of sensory functions and stimulation of long-distance myelination of regenerating axons. The results contribute to the development of new therapeutic strategies in peripheral nerve repair.     

Studies on cultured rat Schwann cells. I. Establishment of purified populations from cultures of peripheral nerve

We have previously reported that in dissociated cultures of neonatal rat sciatic nerve, all of the cells could be identified by indirect immunofluorescence with two antisera to cell surface antigens. The Schwann cells, but not the fibroblasts, expressed the Ran-1 antigen, while the fibroblasts, but not the Schwann cells, expressed the Thy-1 antigen. We have exploited this difference to derive pure populations of Schwann cells. A combination of [3H]thymidine autoradiography and immunofluorescence marking showed that in Modified Eagle's Medium with 10% foetal calf serum, the Schwann cells divided slowly while the fibroblasts divided rapidly. Accordingly, two day old cultures were exposed to cytosine arabinoside to select against the fibroblasts, followed by growth in medium containing an extract of bovine pituitary which stimulated division of the Schwann cells. After 7 days the confluent cultures, which contained 80-90% Schwann cells, were passaged after treatment in suspension with antiserum to Thy-1 and rabbit complement. After continued growth in medium with pituitary extract, the secondary cultures contained greater than 99.5% Schwann cells. These purified populations have been maintained in culture for as long as 150 days (6 passages) and retained the Ran-1 marker. The cultured Schwann cells expressed the S100 antigen, as shown by indirect immunofluorescence and complement fixation, and receptors for cholera toxin. They did not express the large external transformation sensitive protein, the glial fibrillary acidic protein, or receptors for tetanus toxin.     

Aligned fibers enhance nerve guide conduits when bridging peripheral nerve defects focused on early repair stage

Nerve conduits enhance nerve regeneration in the repair of long-distance peripheral nerve defects. To help optimize the effectiveness of nerve conduits for nerve repair, we developed a multi-step electrospinning process for constructing nerve guide conduits with aligned nanofibers. The alignment of the nerve guide conduits was characterized by scanning electron microscopy and fast Fourier transform. The mechanical performance of the nerve guide conduits was assessed by testing for tensile strength and compression resistance. The biological performance of the aligned fibers was examined using Schwann cells, PC12 cells and dorsal root ganglia in vitro. Immunohistochemistry was performed for the Schwann cell marker S100 and for the neurofilament protein NF200 in PC12 cells and dorsal root ganglia. In the in vivo experiment, a 1.5-cm defect model of the right sciatic nerve in adult female Sprague-Dawley rats was produced and bridged with an aligned nerve guide conduit. Hematoxylin-eosin staining and immunohistochemistry were used to observe the expression of ATF3 and cleaved caspase-3 in the regenerating matrix. The recovery of motor function was evaluated using the static sciatic nerve index. The number of myelinated fibers, axon diameter, fiber diameter, and myelin thickness in the distal nerve were observed by electron microscopy. Gastrocnemius muscle mass ratio was also determined. The analyses revealed that aligned nanofiber nerve guide conduits have good mechanical properties and can induce Schwann cells, PC12 cells and dorsal root ganglia to aggregate along the length of the nanofibers, and promote the growth of longer axons in the latter two(neuronal) cell types. The aligned fiber nerve conduits increased the expression of ATF3 and cleaved caspase-3 at the middle of the regenerative matrix and at the distal nerve segment, improved sciatic nerve function, increased muscle mass of the gastrocnemius muscle, and enhanced recovery of distal nerve ultrastructure. Collectively, the results show that highly aligned nanofibers improve the performance of the nerve conduit bridge, and enhance its effectiveness in repairing peripheral nerve defects.     

Chemoattractive capacity of different lengths of nerve fragments bridging regeneration chambers for the repair of sciatic nerve defects

A preliminary study by our research group showed that 6-mm-long regeneration chamber bridging is equivalent to autologous nerve transplantation for the repair of 12-mm nerve defects. In this study, we compared the efficacy of different lengths (6, 8, 10 mm) of nerve fragments bridging 6-mm regeneration chambers for the repair of 12-mm-long nerve defects. At 16 weeks after the regeneration chamber was implanted, the number, diameter and myelin sheath thickness of the regenerated nerve fibers, as well as the conduction velocity of the sciatic nerve and gastrocnemius muscle wet weight ratio, were similar to that observed with autologous nerve transplantation. Our results demonstrate that 6-, 8-and 10-mm-long nerve fragments bridging 6-mm regeneration chambers effec-tively repair 12-mm-long nerve defects. Because the chemoattractive capacity is not affected by the length of the nerve fragment, we suggest adopting 6-mm-long nerve fragments for the repair of peripheral nerve defects.     

Proliferating immature Schwann cells contribute to nerve regeneration after ischemic peripheral nerve injury

Schwann cells exhibit a high degree of plasticity in adult peripheral nerves after mechanical injury; they have, therefore, been implicated in promoting nerve regeneration. However, Schwann cell behavior after ischemic injury has not yet been elucidated. To determine how Schwann cell plasticity may contribute to recovery from ischemic neuropathy, we used a rat model in which ischemia was induced in the tibial nerve by a 5-hour occlusion of the supplying arteries. Proliferation of immature Schwann cells that emerged in the injured nerve was evaluated by double immunostaining for the p75 neurotrophin receptor and proliferating cell nuclear antigen. The number of proliferating cell nuclear antigen/p75 neurotrophin receptor double-positive cells increased significantly in 1 to 2 weeks after ischemia and subsequently decreased by 4 weeks. During this time, the postmitotic Schwann cells differentiated into mature cells, as demonstrated with bromodeoxyuridine incorporation, which facilitated axon guidance and subsequent axon remyelination. These results suggest the emergence and proliferation of immature Schwann cells that contribute to nerve regeneration after ischemic injury. The manipulation of this population of proliferating immature Schwann cells may be a useful strategy for treating ischemic peripheral neuropathy.     

Early regenerative effects of NGF-transduced Schwann cells in peripheral nerve repair

Peripheral nerve injury leads to a rapid and robust increase in the synthesis of neurotrophins which guide and support regenerating axons. To further optimize neurotrophin supply at the earliest stages of regeneration, we over-expressed NGF in Schwann cells (SCs) by transducing these cells with a lentiviral vector encoding NGF (NGF-SCs). Transplantation of NGF-SCs in a rat sciatic nerve transection/repair model led to significant increase of NGF levels 2weeks after injury and correspondingly to substantial improvement in axonal regeneration. Numbers of NF200, ChAT and CGRP-positive axon profiles, as well as the gastrocnemius muscle weights, were significantly higher in the NGF-Schwann cell group compared to the animals that received control SCs transduced with a lentiviral vector encoding GFP (GFP-SCs). Comparison with other models of NGF application signifies the important role of this neurotrophin during the early stages of regeneration, and supports the importance of developing combined gene and cell therapy for peripheral nerve repair.     

聚四氟乙烯膜管内植入许旺细胞与神经生长因子桥接面神经的比较

背景：在周围神经修复领域中，神经营养与趋化理论得到普遍关注，随之各种神经再生室及许旺细胞营养因子应用的实验增多，但尚缺乏深入系统的报道。 目的：以聚四氟乙烯膜管作为神经再生室，观察分别植入许旺细胞与神经生长因子后对桥接面神经缺损的修复效果。 设计、时间及地点：随机对照动物实验，于2008-01在山东大学动物实验中心完成。 材料：新西兰纯种白兔24只，随机分为许旺细胞组、神经生长因子组、模型对照组，8只/组。聚四氟乙烯膜由上海塑料研究所制备，厚度0.15 mm，微孔径10~30 μm。神经生长因子为烟台北方制药有限公司产品。 方法：3组兔显露右侧面神经颊支，切除8 mm建立面神经缺损模型。将造模时切下的神经段于镜下剥除外膜，胰蛋白酶与胶原蛋白酶联合消化，L-多聚赖氨酸纯化后获得纯度较高且具有活性的许旺细胞悬液。将聚四氟乙烯膜管套缝固定于各组缺损区神经的两断端上，使神经缺损两断端在管内相距10 mm，许旺细胞组吸取自体许旺细胞悬液注入膜管内，组织黏接剂封闭膜管两端口；神经生长因子组吸取神经生长因子注入膜管内；膜管对照组不进行任何干预。 主要观察指标：采用四导生理记录仪检查修复后面神经传导速度，苏木精-伊红染色观察神经纤维再生程度。 结果：细胞修复后6，12周，许旺细胞组面神经传导速度>神经生长因子组>膜管对照组（F=72.319，F =106.134，P均< 0.01）。细胞修复后12周，许旺细胞组神经干粗而直，走向顺畅，可见于再生室膜的微孔结构中，许旺细胞包绕神经纤维；神经生长因子组新生神经纤维较少，可见发育成熟的许旺细胞增多；单纯膜管组再生室内神经纤维较少。 结论：许旺细胞或神经生长因子植入聚四氟乙烯膜管内均可促进面神经恢复，但前者修复效果明显优于后者。     

Interaction between Schwann cells and other cells during repair of peripheral nerve injury

Peripheral nerve injury(PNI) is common and, unlike damage to the central nervous system injured nerves can effectively regenerate depending on the location and severity of injury. Peripheral myelinating glia, Schwann cells(SCs), interact with various cells in and around the injury site and are important for debris elimination, repair, and nerve regeneration. Following PNI, Wallerian degeneration of the distal stump is rapidly initiated by degeneration of damaged axons followed by morphologic changes in SCs and the recruitment of circulating macrophages. Interaction with fibroblasts from the injured nerve microenvironment also plays a role in nerve repair. The replication and migration of injury-induced dedifferentiated SCs are also important in repairing the nerve. In particular, SC migration stimulates axonal regeneration and subsequent myelination of regenerated nerve fibers. This mobility increases SC interactions with other cells in the nerve and the exogenous environment, which influence SC behavior post-injury. Following PNI, SCs directly and indirectly interact with other SCs, fibroblasts, and macrophages. In addition, the inter-and intracellular mechanisms that underlie morphological and functional changes in SCs following PNI still require further research to explain known phenomena and less understood cell-specific roles in the repair of the injured peripheral nerve. This review provides a basic assessment of SC function post-PNI, as well as a more comprehensive evaluation of the literature concerning the SC interactions with macrophages and fibroblasts that can influence SC behavior and, ultimately, repair of the injured nerve.