Radial forearm skin with flexor carpi radialis muscle: a useful composite free flap

Four patients were treated successfully with a simple modification of the standard radial forearm free flap. The flexor carpi radialis was harvested along with the radial artery vascular pedicle and forearm skin, producing a tennis racket-shaped flap. The entire flexor carpi radialis can be transferred based on radial artery perforators that enter the distal half of the muscle. The flexor carpi radialis can extend the versatility of the radial forearm free flap, principally by providing good-quality coverage of the vascular anastomoses.     

The radial forearm--flexor carpi radialis myocutaneous flap: case report.

A patient sustained a compound fracture of the elbow resulting in a deep soft tissue defect with exposed bone, joint and nerve. The flexor carpi radialis (FCR) muscle was incorporated within the radial forearm island flap to cover the defect. Wrist flexion was not compromised by this procedure. The blood supply and applications of the radial forearm--flexor carpi radialis myocutaneous flap are described.     

The extensor carpi radialis longus muscle flap for anterior elbow coverage.

A muscle group resection for treatment of malignant fibrous histiocytoma of the distal arm exposed a 15 cm length of radial nerve. The soft tissue defect and radial nerve were covered with an extensor carpi radialis longus muscle island flap. The proximal dominant vascular pedicle enabled extensive mobilization and transposition of this muscle to cover the defect while preserving normal elbow, radial nerve, and hand function. Because of its ease of elevation, extensive arc of rotation, and its expendability, the extensor carpi radialis longus muscle flap should be considered as an option for reconstruction of defects about the elbow joint.     

Peroneal perforator‐based peroneus longus tendon and sural neurofasciocutaneous composite flap transfer for a large soft‐tissue defect of the forearm: A case report

We describe the use of a composite flap composed of a sural neurofasciocutaneous flap and a vascularized peroneus longus tendon for the reconstruction of severe composite forearm tissue defects in a patient. A 43‐year‐old man had his left arm caught in a conveyor belt resulting in a large soft‐tissue defect of 18 × 11 cm over the dorsum forearm. The extensor carpi radialis, superficial radial nerve, and radial artery were severely damaged. A free neurofasciocutaneous composite flap measuring 16 × 11 cm was outlined on the patient's left lower leg to allow simultaneous skin, tendon, nerve, and artery reconstruction. The flap, which included the peroneus longus tendon, was elevated on the subfascial plane. After the flap was transferred to the recipient site, the peroneal artery was anastomosed to the radial artery in a flow‐through manner. The vascularized tendon graft with 15 cm in length was used to reconstruct the extensor carpi radialis longus tendon defect using an interlacing suture technique. As the skin paddle of the sural neurofasciocutaneous flap and the vascularized peroneus longus tendon graft were linked by the perforator and minimal fascial tissue, the skin paddle was able to rotate and slide with comparative ease. The flap survived completely without any complications. The length of follow‐up was 12 months and was uneventful. Range of motion of his left wrist joint was slightly limited to 75 degrees. This novel composite flap may be useful for reconstructing long tendon defects associated with extensive forearm soft tissue defects.     

The dorsoradial flap: a new flap for hand reconstruction. Anatomical study and clinical applications

The authors report a new cutaneous flap harvested from the dorsal and distal quarter of the forearm: the dorsoradial flap. The vascularisation type of the cutaneous paddle belongs this flap to the anterograde and axial family flaps. The anatomical study carried out on thirty six fresh cadaver upper arms showed a constant and a consistent cutaneous collateral branch of the radial artery which arises at the apex of the first intermetacarpal space. Two anatomical types were recorded according to the origin of the dorsoradial artery: type I (84% of cases), the vessel arises directly from the radial artery; type II (16% of cases), it arises from a common trunk with the first dorsal intermetacarpal artery. Those anatomical findings does not influence the flap operative technique, the flap design and the location of the pedicle pivot point. The dorsoradial artery emerges vertically from the apex of the first intermetacarpal space, crosses the angle between the extensor pollicis longus tendon laterally and the extensor carpi radialis longus tendon medially and turns proximally towards the distal radio-ulnar joint. Over the dorsal aspect of the wrist, the dorsoradial artery enters the subcutaneous tissue, runs parallel to the extensor pollicis longus tendon at three millimeters in a medial position, passes over the medial collateral branch of the superficial radial nerve and irrigates all the distal and dorsal quarter of the forearm. The artery is consistently accompanied by two comitantes veins, which assume the venous drainage of the cutaneous territory. The flap paddle is designed over the distal dorsal forearm quarter, between the dorsal crease of the wrist distally, the ulnar crest medially and the radial crest laterally. All this skin territory can be harvested and supplied by the dorsoradial pedicle, but we always should deal with the needs of the defects reconstruction and the morbidity of the donor site. The vascular pedicle is outlined between the distal radio-ulnar joint and the apex of the first intermetacarpal space with a minimum of one centimeter width. The surgical procedure is carried out under a tourniquet without an upper arm exsanguination. The skin is firstly dissected over the vascular pedicle through an S shape incision; it is lifted on the dermo-hypodermis plan preserving all the superficial venous network with the pedicle. The flap is elevated from proximal to distal including the dorsal forearm fascia. Over the dorsal extensor retinaculum, the dissection is underwent close to it elevating all the subcutaneous tissues. The medial collateral branch of the superficial radial nerve should be identified and respected. At the distal border of the dorsal retinaculum, the extensor pollicis longus and the extensor carpi radialis longus tendons are identified and retracted. The pedicle dissection goes deeper between this two tendons towards the first web space. It takes all the areolar tissue around the pedicle in order to preserve the venous network of the cutaneous paddle. The donor site is closed primarily if the skin width does not exceed 3 cm or grafted secondarily. Its large rotational arc allows the cutaneous paddle to cover the dorsal hand and metacarpo-phalangeal long fingers defects, the dorsal aspect of the thumb and the first intermetacarpal space. It can also safely reach the palmar aspect of the wrist. We report four clinical cases where the dorsoradial flap was successfully applied. This preliminary clinical experience exhibits the vascular network reliability and the operative technique simplicity of this new cutaneous flap. We believe that it should be added to the armamentarium of the reconstructive hand surgeon and considered as a useful tool for soft tissue hand and thumb reconstruction defects.     

One-stage reconstruction of facial paralysis associated with severe skin scar deformity,using combined flexor carpi radialis muscle and radial forearm free flap

The authors present a case of free microsurgical transfer of combined flexor carpi radialis muscle and radial fasciocutaneous forearm flap in reconstruction of facial paralysis associated with severe ipsilateral skin scar deformity after removal of a giant cavernous hemangioma 22 years previously. The flexor carpi radialis muscle was used to reanimate the paralyzed face, and its fasciocutaneous radial forearm part restored overlying hemifacial skin, with good functional and rather pleasing aesthetic results. The follow-up period was 5 years.     

桡侧腕屈肌移位重建前臂旋后功能

臂丛神经损伤或小儿麻痹后遗症，因肌肉麻痹导致旋后功能障碍，影响手功能的发挥。为了寻找重建旋后功能的动力肌，解剖观察了５０侧成年男尸的桡侧腕屈肌。发现该肌有多源性血管供血，主要来自肱动脉和桡动脉。由正中神经肌支支配肌肉运动；只要保留近侧１／３肌腹便能保证全肌的血液供应及神经支配。根据解剖资料，设计了用桡侧腕屈肌远侧２／３段，经前臂尺侧到桡背侧，将肌腱于前臂极度旋后位，固定在桡骨茎突近端６ｃｍ～１０ｃｍ的桡骨干上。临床应用４例，经平均３．２年随访，旋后功能恢复良好。认为，在尺侧腕屈肌、旋前圆肌麻痹，或需用来重建其它运动功能时，是选择桡侧腕屈肌移位重建前臂旋后功能的最佳适应证     

The free ulnar forearm flap

Many flaps have been described based on the septocutaneous perforators; these have many advantages for the coverage of soft tissue defects. The ulnar forearm flap described by Lovie is a septocutaneous flap based on the septocutaneous perforators of the ulnar artery. We report the use of this flap in 2 patients who required soft tissue coverage. The ulnar forearm flap has the advantages of thin and pliable skin, constant and large pedicle, and the technical possibility of combination with the muscles, sensory or motor nerve, and ulna. Comparing it with the radial forearm flap, there is no possibility of exposure of flexor tendons, which usually results in the good take of skin grafts. After skin grafting, the donor scar is unnoticeable because of its position on the forearm. This flap is for the coverage of thin defects that require mobility, such as in the extremities or the intraoral region. It also could be used for the coverage of hand or arm defects as a distally or proximally based island flap, respectively.     

Two modifications of the radial forearm flap for reconstruction of complex facial defects

The free radial forearm flap has been one of the most common free flaps of recent decades. This flap is employed predominantly in head and neck reconstruction. The possibility of combining bone, muscle, and nerves with the fasciocutaneous flap greatly enhanced reconstructive options. However, the frequently unsightly donor site and the development of other readily available free flaps have led to a decline in the use of the radial forearm flap. Nevertheless, for reconstruction in head and neck surgery, with the need for thin, pliable tissues and a long vascular pedicle, the radial forearm flap still remains a prime choice. Two modifications of the standard forearm flap are presented. The first patient had two large defects at the nose and mental area after radical resection of a basal-cell carcinoma. Soft-tissue reconstruction was achieved with a conventional forearm flap and a second additional skin island based on a perforator vessel originating proximally from the pedicle. Both skin islands were independently mobile and could be sutured tension-free into the defects after tunneling through the cheek, with vascular anastomosis to the facial vessels. The second patient required additional volume to fill the orbital cavity after enucleation of the eye due to an ulcerating basal-cell carcinoma. In this case, the body of the flexor carpi radialis muscle was included in the skin flap to fill the defect. The skin island was used to reconstruct the major soft-tissue defect.     

Incidentaloma at Radial Artery Forearm Free Flap Harvest: An Occult Volar Wrist Ganglion

Occult volar wrist ganglion originating from radioscaphoid interval and having adherence to flexor carpi radialis tendon [Fcr] and radial artery is an uncommon occurrence. We report such a case which was occult and asymptomatic during pre-operative assessment and presented as an incidentaloma during radial artery forearm free flap harvest for oral cancer reconstruction.     

Flap coverage of dorsum of hand associated with extensor tendons injuries: A completely vascularized single-stage reconstruction

This study reports results in 12 patients treated with "completely vascularized single-stage approaches," so defined because skin, tendon, and nerve are transferred as a compound flap, and all are vascularized. A free dorsalis pedis cutaneotendinous flap was used in 7 patients, while a radial forearm cutaneotendinous island flap was transposed in 5 patients. A dorsalis pedis flap provides four vascularized extensor tendons (extensor digitorum comunis tendons), and the radial artery flap permits the inclusion of one completely vascularized tendon (palmaris longus) and two "strips" of vascularized tendons (flexor carpi radialis and brachioradialis). The flaps survived in all cases, and the transferred tendons were functioning well. The dorsalis pedis flap can be employed in the reconstruction of cutaneotendinous defects of the dorsum of the hand which require the use of three or four tendons grafts. We suggest the use of forearm cutaneotendinous flaps in cases of reconstruction of one or two extensor tendons. The "completely vascularized single-stage reconstruction" avoids prolonged hospitalization and results in a rapid restoration of near-normal function and appearance of the hand.     

Anatomic study of distally based pedicle compound flaps with nutrient vessels of the cutaneous nerves and superficial veins of the forearm

The purpose of this study was to describe the anatomic basis for a distally based neurovenovascular pedicle compound flap, with nutrient vessels of the cutaneous nerves and superficial veins of the forearm. In this study, the origins, branches, and anastomoses of nutrient vessels of the cutaneous nerves and superficial veins of the forearm and their relationships with the blood supply of adjacent muscle, bone, and skin were assessed in 96 adult cadavers by perfusion of red gelatin into the superior limb arteries. The results showed that the nutrient vessels of cutaneous nerves and superficial veins of the forearm were found to have multiple origins, consisting of six longitudinal vascular plexuses and one transverse vascular plexus of the forearm, as follows: 1) the anterior-lateral vascular plexus from cutaneous branches of the radial artery; 2) the anterior-medialis vascular plexus from cutaneous branches of the ulnar artery; 3) the dorso-lateral vascular plexus from radial osteal and cutaneous branches; 4) the dorso-medialis vascular plexus from ulnar osteal and cutaneous branches; 5) the radial vascular plexus from osteal and cutaneous branches of the radial artery, cutaneous branches of the radial artery in the upper wrist, recurrent branches of the styloid process of the radius, and the radialis vascular plexus of cutaneous branches of the tabatière anatomique (anatomical snuffbox); and 6) the ulnar lateral vascular plexus from cutaneous branches of the ulnar artery in the upper wrist and osteal and cutaneous branches. The transverse vascular plexus is composed of dorsal branches of the ulnar and radial arteries. These perforating branches give fascial branches, cutaneous branches, periosteal branches, and nutrient vessels of cutaneous nerves and superficial veins. These results suggest that nutrient vessels of the cutaneous nerves and superficial veins of the forearm have the same origins as those of the nutrient vessels of adjacent muscles, bones, and skin of the forearm, which can be designated as five types of distally based pedicle flaps with nutrient vessels of cutaneous nerves and superficial veins of the forearm, whose rotation point is at the wrist joint. This flap can be applied to repair tissues of distal parts of the hand.     

Surgical exposures of the radius and ulna

The forearm contains many muscles, nerves, and vascular structures that change position on forearm rotation. Exposure of the radial shaft is best achieved with the Henry (volar) or Thompson (dorsal) approach. The volar flexor carpi radialis approaches are used increasingly for exposure of the distal radius. Although the dorsal approach is a safe utilitarian option with many applications, its use for managing fracture of the distal radius has waned. Potential complications associated with radial exposure include injury to the superficial branch of the radial nerve, the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve, and the cephalic vein. Dorsal and ulnar proximal radial exposures are associated with increased risk of injury to the posterior interosseous nerve. With surgical exposure of the ulna, care is required to avoid injuring the dorsal cutaneous branch of the ulnar nerve.     

应用数字减影血管造影术指导皮瓣选择修复严重手外伤创面

目的本文探讨数字减影血管造影术(Digital subtraction angiography,DSA)在严重手外伤治疗中,对皮瓣选择的指导作用。方法回顾性分析我科治疗的6例手外伤患者,创面均有肌腱和(或)骨外露,所有患者均行DSA检查,明确前臂和手的血供情况,包括桡动脉、尺动脉的走行及其穿支动脉、掌深弓掌浅弓的存在与否等。根据造影结果,综合评价血管损伤情况和邻近的软组织条件,并据此选择逆行前臂岛状皮瓣或远位游离皮瓣修复创面。结果 4例患者前臂及手掌部主干血管无损伤,选择逆行前臂轴型皮瓣修复。2例患者因前臂桡动脉断裂、掌深弓掌浅弓完整性缺失而选择游离轴型皮瓣修复创面,术后皮瓣均存活。结论 DSA造影可以清晰显示患侧前臂和手的血管网,发现可能存在的血管损伤,能有效地指导皮瓣的选择,提高皮瓣选择的合理性和皮瓣移植的成功率。     

带前臂外侧皮神经营养血管筋膜皮瓣的应用解剖

目的：为带前臂外侧皮神经及其营养血管筋膜皮瓣提供形态学基础。方法：在３２侧成人上肢标本上，观测前臂外侧皮神经营养血管及其周围皮肤的供血情况。结果：前臂外侧皮神经近侧的血供为肱动脉末端和桡动脉起始部的肌皮支，起始处外径分别为１．４ｍｍ、１．１ｍｍ，穿出深筋膜前长为１．９ｃｍ、１．４ｃｍ；远侧主要为桡动脉的粗大皮支，起始处外径为０．８ｍｍ，穿出深筋膜前长０．８ｃｍ；此外，桡动脉的茎突返支及掌浅支的皮支营养其远端。其神经支在神经束间或神经旁相互吻合构成纵向（链式）血管网，并借分支与筋膜皮支所形成的皮下筋膜血管网沟通。结论：可设计带前臂外侧皮神经及其营养血管的筋膜皮瓣，顺行或逆行转位修复邻近部位的软组织缺损。     

The bottom-up approach to the suprafascial harvest of the radial forearm flap

Suprafascial radial forearm flaps cause far less donor morbidity compared with the conventional method of including the deep fascia. Here we describe our technique of harvesting the flap with a bottom-up approach, which simplifies flap elevation and is safe and expedient. The radial artery pedicle is ligated distally and secured to the flap. Gentle traction on the pedicle presents the inferior surface of the pedicle, facilitating dissection. The superficial layer of the deep fascia is taken with the flap, together with a generous cuff of subcutaneous tissue above the pedicle in which vessels nourishing the flap are located. It is crucial to preserve the conjoin of the deep layer of the deep fascia to the fascia covering the brachioradialis laterally and flexor carpi radialis medially. This fascial layer prevents bow-stringing of the tendons during wrist and finger flexion and allows the use of a full-thickness skin graft to close the donor site. The latter delivers superior cosmetic results than can be achieved with a split-thickness skin graft.     

Upper extremity salvage with a flow-through free flap

In complex extremity injuries, which include composite tissue lost with devascularization caused by segmental vascular damage, simultaneous coverage of the defects with revascularizations should be required. One-stage reconstruction of both soft tissue coverage and vascular damage can be performed by a flow-through-type free flap. In this series, 5 patients between 13 and 36 years of age with wide composite tissue defects in the cubital region and segmental defects in brachial arteries were operated at our clinic between 1996 and 2003. With the aim of reconstructing the wide tissue defects in the cubital region as well as that of the brachial artery, a radial arterial flow-through flap was applied. The radial artery of the flow-through flap was anastomosed to the proximal ends of the brachial and ulnar arteries in an end-to-end fashion. In 4 of the patients, the radial arterial flow-through flap was prepared from the distal aspect of the wounded forearm and in 1 patient from the contralateral forearm. In the postoperative period, no complications related to the anastomosis were encountered in the flap with all anastomoses found to be patent, and distal circulation was restored. The radial arterial flow-through flap is very useful in the clinical field of major trauma of the cubital region with brachial artery damage with numerous advantages that include the opportunity to work in one single surgical area, shorter dissection times resulting from simple and fixed anatomy, perfect color and tissue adaptation, and the suitability of the vessel caliber and length.     

The proximally pedicled arteria radialis forearm flap in the treatment of soft tissue defects of the dorsal elbow

Soft tissue defects of the dorsal side of the elbow require a stable soft tissue reconstruction. Therefore, for the treatment of limited, uninfected defects, local or distant skin flaps should be used. For large and infected defects, the use of the proximally pedicled arteria radialis forearm flap is indicated. We used the flap in 14 patients as an alternative to conventional methods. This neurovascular, septocutaneous flap proved safe and versatile, guaranteeing stable soft tissue reconstruction of the dorsal aspect of the elbow. The flap has an orthograde flow and is nourished by the radial artery. With its long, neurovascular pedicle, it can be transposed in a proximal ulnar or radial direction. Four years after operation, all elbow joints showed a complete range of motion. No further soft tissue instabilities were seen.     

Versatility of the island forearm flap in the management of extensive skin defects of the hand

SUMMARY: Even the most meticulously performed reconstructions of the hand are at risk of failure if appropriate soft tissue coverage has not been ensured. The radial forearm flap has been found useful in various applications involving soft tissue coverage of skin defects not only of the upper and lower extremities, but in other plastic reconstructive procedures as well. Most hand and microsurgeons will agree that the island radial forearm flap offers several important advantages for covering defects in the hand. The versatility of this flap offers valuable options for the surgeon as it may include bone, nerve or tendons to be used as a complex flap. Its reliability is attributed to the fact that since no anastomosis of vessels is required, the risk of thrombus formation at the anastomosis site is eliminated.