兔胚胎关节软骨细胞体外培养的研究

目的 探讨兔胚胎软骨细胞体外培养的生物学特性。方法 对孕4周兔胚胎关节软骨用酶消化法分离培养细胞。观察细胞存活率、贴壁率、生长曲线和组织形态学改变。结果 兔胚胎软骨细胞可从胚胎软骨组织中消化分离出来，经鉴定具有软骨细胞的特性。原代兔胚软骨细胞存活率达97％以上，细胞贴壁率达80％以上，从原代到第4代都有高增殖力，到第8代时增殖力降低。到第12代时几乎丧失细胞增殖。结论 体外培养的胚胎软骨细胞前4代适合于作修复关节软骨缺损的组织工程细胞。     

离心管培养软骨作为半月板移植替代物的可能性研究

目的比较培养关节软骨和半月板软骨细胞的生物学特性,探讨培养软骨作为半月板移植替代物的可能性. 方法分别自3周龄大耳白兔关节软骨和半月板分离软骨细胞,行单层传代培养和离心管培养.将离心管培养形成的软骨和6周龄兔半月板行组织学和透射电镜观察,比较关节软骨细胞和半月板纤维软骨细胞的生长曲线.流式细胞术检测第2、4代关节软骨细胞和半月板纤维软骨细胞周期. 结果第4代关节软骨细胞呈去分化,似成纤维细胞.离心管关节软骨细胞培养能形成软骨,半月板纤维软骨细胞不能形成软骨.培养软骨和半月板的组织学及超微结构差异显著,培养软骨中软骨细胞5%呈现凋亡.第2、4代关节软骨细胞中亚二倍体细胞比例明显多于第2、4代半月板纤维软骨细胞(P<0.05). 结论半月板来源的软骨细胞经离心管培养不能形成软骨组织,关节软骨细胞离心培养形成软骨不能作为半月板的移植物,关节软骨和半月板软骨组织存在明显的区别.     

Elastic Cartilage Reconstruction by Transplantation of Cultured Hyaline Cartilage–Derived Chondrocytes

Current surgical intervention of craniofacial defects caused by injuries or abnormalities uses reconstructive materials, such as autologous cartilage grafts. Transplantation of autologous tissues, however, places a significant invasiveness on patients, and many efforts have been made for establishing an alternative graft. Recently, we and others have shown the potential use of reconstructed elastic cartilage from ear-derived chondrocytes or progenitors with the unique elastic properties. Here, we examined the differentiation potential of canine joint cartilage–derived chondrocytes into elastic cartilage for expanding the cell sources, such as hyaline cartilage. Articular chondrocytes are isolated from canine joint, cultivated, and compared regarding characteristic differences with auricular chondrocytes, including proliferation rates, gene expression, extracellular matrix production, and cartilage reconstruction capability after transplantation. Canine articular chondrocytes proliferated less robustly than auricular chondrocytes, but there was no significant difference in the amount of sulfated glycosaminoglycan produced from redifferentiated chondrocytes. Furthermore, in vitro expanded and redifferentiated articular chondrocytes have been shown to reconstruct elastic cartilage on transplantation that has histologic characteristics distinct from hyaline cartilage. Taken together, cultured hyaline cartilage–derived chondrocytes are a possible cell source for elastic cartilage reconstruction.     

三步酶消化法高效分离兔原代关节软骨细胞及体外培养观察

目的　观察设计的三步酶消化法分离原代关节软骨细胞的效果,并对体外培养不同代次细胞的生物学活性进行评价。方法　三步酶消化法设计为以培养液配制的1g/L胰蛋白酶及1g/LEDTA混合液、1g/L透明质酸酶和2g/LⅠ型胶原酶顺序消化关节软骨分离细胞,检测细胞收获效率和存活率;体外传代培养观察细胞形态、生长及胞外基质中Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型胶原、蛋白多糖聚集体等的变化。结果　(1)关节软骨经三步酶消化基质逐步解离和降解,细胞得以完全释放和分离,每克软骨的细胞收获量平均为50 3×106 个细胞,细胞存活率平均为98. 8%。(2)原代和第一代细胞附壁生长呈三角形或多角形,生长融合时呈卵圆形,Ⅱ型胶原免疫组化和甲苯胺蓝异染反应均呈阳性,原代细胞外基质有高的硫酸糖胺多糖含量为(92±10)μg/cm2;第三代后细胞逐渐变为梭形,Ⅱ型胶原免疫组化为阴性,甲苯胺蓝异染反应明显减弱,第四代细胞外基质的硫酸糖胺多糖含量为(48±12)μg/cm2。结论　(1)三步酶消化法可使关节软骨基质完全消化降解,具有高细胞收获率、高细胞存活率和操作简便等特点。(2)原代和第一代软骨细胞具有良好的生物学活性,而第三代以后的细胞生物学活性低下。     

Smooth muscle actin expression by human articular chondrocytes and their contraction of a collagen-glycosaminoglycan matrix in vitro.

Recent studies have demonstrated that human articular chondrocytes can express the gene for a contractile muscle actin, alpha-smooth muscle actin (SMA), in situ. One objective of this work was to evaluate the SMA-content of isolated human articular chondrocytes using Western blot analysis and to correlate the amount of SMA in the cells with passage number and the number of days in culture. A second objective was to determine if articular cartilage-derived cells expressing the gene for SMA in vitro also continue to express type II collagen. A final aim of the current study was to determine if SMA-containing cartilage-derived cells were capable of contracting a collagen glycosaminoglycan analog of extracellular matrix in vitro. Articular chondrocytes were isolated from 13 patients undergoing total joint arthroplasty. Cells were serially passaged through passage 7. Samples were allocated for Western blot analysis of SMA. Cells in monolayer culture were also stained immunohistochemically for SMA and type II collagen. Cells from passage 3 and 7 were seeded into a porous type I collagen-glycosaminoglycan matrix and the diameter of the scaffolds measured every other day for 21 days. Immunohistochemistry of the articular cartilage samples revealed SMA in the articular chondrocytes in situ with a greater percentage of cells staining positive in the superficial half (60 +/- 1.2%; mean +/- SEM) of the cartilage than in the basal half (28 +/- 1.3%). There was an increasing amount of SMA in the cells in monolayer culture with passage number and a meaningful correlation of the SMA content with the days in culture (linear regression analysis; R2 = 0.72). Double staining for SMA and type II collagen showed that type II collagen-expressing cells in monolayer could also express SMA. SMA-containing cells were found to contract the collagen glycosaminoglycan matrix, with the cells containing more SMA (passage 7 cells) displaying more matrix contraction than those with a lesser amount of SMA (passage 3 cells). The results indicate that control of the expression of SMA may be important when employing articular chondrocytes, expanded in monolayer culture, for implantation alone or in a cell-seeded matrix for cartilage repair procedures.     

Optimization of chondrocyte expansion in culture. Effect of TGF beta-2, bFGF and L-ascorbic acid on bovine articular chondrocytes

In vitro multiplication of isolated chondrocytes is needed to repair articular cartilage defects with autologous material. In this study we used monolayer cultures of bovine articular chondrocytes. The effect of transforming growth factor beta-2, basic fibroblast growth factor or L-ascorbic acid on cell multiplication, in the presence of 10% fetal calf serum, was measured in primary culture, the third and tenth passage. TGF beta-2 stimulated the proliferation of chondrocytes in the primary culture and L-ascorbic acid stimulated in the third passage. On the basis of these results, we chose an optimal addition scheme in which TGF beta-2 was added in primary culture and first passage, followed by addition of L-ascorbic acid in the second and third passage; this resulted in a 7-fold increase in cell number compared to the control group, in about 4 weeks. Our findings stress the importance of adding the right growth factor at the right moment. Collagen type II expression was lost after the third passage, in the control as well as in the experimental condition. The ability to produce hyaline cartilage specific matrix components is essential, if multiplied cells are to be used to repair cartilage defects.     

Optimization of chondrocyte expansion in culture : Effect of TGFβ-2, bFGF and L-ascorbic acid on bovine articular chondrocytes

In vitro multiplication of isolated chondrocytes is needed to repair articular cartilage defects with autologous material. In this study we used monolayer cultures of bovine articular chondrocytes. The effect of transforming growth factor 6-2, basic fibroblast growth factor or L-ascorbic acid on cell multiplication, in the presence of 10% fetal calf serum, was measured in primary culture, the third and tenth passage. TGFB-2 stimulated the proliferation of chondrocytes in the primary culture and L-ascorbic acid stimulated in the third passage. On the basis of these results, we chose an optimal addition scheme in which TGFB-2 was added in primary culture and first passage, followed by addition of L-ascorbic acid in the second and third passage; this resulted in a 7-fold increase in cell number compared to the control group, in about 4 weeks. Our findings stress the importance of adding the right growth factor at the right moment.

Collagen type II expression was lost after the third passage, in the control as well as in the experimental condition. The ability to produce hyaline cartilage specific matrix components is essential, if multiplied cells are to be used to repair cartilage defects.     

The viability and proliferation of human chondrocytes following cryopreservation

Human articular cartilage samples were retrieved from the resected material of patients undergoing total knee replacement. Samples underwent automated controlled freezing at various stages of preparation: as intact articular cartilage discs, as minced articular cartilage, and as chondrocytes immediately after enzymatic isolation from fresh articular cartilage. Cell viability was examined using a LIVE/DEAD assay which provided fluorescent staining. Isolated chondrocytes were then cultured and Alamar blue assay was used for estimation of cell proliferation at days zero, four, seven, 14, 21 and 28 after seeding. The mean percentage viabilities of chondrocytes isolated from group A (fresh, intact articular cartilage disc samples), group B (following cryopreservation and then thawing, after initial isolation from articular cartilage), group C (from minced cryopreserved articular cartilage samples), and group D (from cryopreserved intact articular cartilage disc samples) were 74.7% (95% confidence interval (CI) 73.1 to 76.3), 47.0% (95% CI 43 to 51), 32.0% (95% CI 30.3 to 33.7) and 23.3% (95% CI 22.1 to 24.5), respectively. Isolated chondrocytes from all groups were expanded by the following mean proportions after 28 days of culturing: group A ten times, group B 18 times, group C 106 times, and group D 154 times. This experiment demonstrated that it is possible to isolate viable chondrocytes from cryopreserved intact human articular cartilage which can then be successfully cultured.     

Gene expression during redifferentiation of human articular chondrocytes

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to investigate gene expression during the in vitro redifferentiation process of human articular chondrocytes isolated from clinical samples from patient undergoing an autologous chondrocyte transplantation therapy (ACT). METHOD: Monolayer (ML) expanded human articular chondrocytes from four donors were cultured in a 3D pellet model and the redifferentiation was investigated by biochemistry, histology, immunohistochemistry and microarray analysis. RESULTS: The culture expanded chondrocytes redifferentiated in the pellet model as seen by an increase in collagen type II immunoreactivity between day 7 and 14. The gene expression from ML to pellet at day 7 included an increase in cartilage matrix proteins like collagen type XI, tenascin C, dermatopontin, COMP and fibronectin. The late phase consisted of a strong downregulation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK-1) and an upregulation of p38 kinase and SOX-9, suggesting that the late phase mimicked parts of the signaling processes involved in the early chondrogenesis in limb bud cells. Other genes, which indicated a transition from proliferation to tissue formation, were the downregulated cell cycle genes GSPT1 and the upregulated growth-arrest-specific protein (gas). The maturation of the pellets included no signs of hypertrophy or apoptosis as seen by downregulation of collagen type X, Matrix Gla protein and increased expression of caspase 3. CONCLUSION: Our data show that human articular chondrocytes taken from surplus cells of patient undergoing ACT treatment and expanded in ML, redifferentiate and form cartilage like matrix in vitro and that this dynamic process involves genes known to be expressed in early chondrogenesis.     

不同代数软骨细胞及其在支架上的生物学特性

目的 观察不同代数软骨细胞及其在支架上的生物学特性，为软骨组织工程提供理想的种子细胞，方法 将2周齿的新西兰大白兔软骨细胞置盖玻片上进行原代和传代培养，同时，把相应代数的软骨细胞种植于明胶海绵上，应用倒置显微镜和电镜观察不同代数细胞形态学变化和增殖能力。以及不同代数软骨细胞种植于支架后的生长和黏附情况，应用HE染色鉴别及免疫组化观察Ⅱ型胶原的分泌情况。结果 （1）软骨细胞在体外单层培养，传5代后细胞形态由多角形变成梭形，逐渐丧失表型。（2）第4代软骨细胞在单层培养时，增殖能力最强，分泌功能旺盛。（3）传代细胞贴壁时间短于原代。（4）第4代软骨细胞种植于支架上形成软骨细胞-支架复合体所需的时间最短，软骨细胞于海绵支架上的黏附最紧密。结论 软骨细胞在体外培养第4代左右可以作为组织工程的最佳种子细胞，其形成的软骨细胞-支架复合体的质量最佳，时间最短。     

The transglutaminase, Factor XIIIA, is present in articular chondrocytes

OBJECTIVES: The transglutaminase (TGase) family includes seven different enzymes that catalyse a protein cross-linking reaction resulting in structural and functional alterations in substrate proteins. TGase activity is easily measureable in mature articular cartilage where it may contribute to CPPD deposition disease through its actions on growth factors, crystal components or extracellular matrix proteins. In contrast, low levels of TGase activity are found in chondrocytes from young animals. We previously demonstrated type II TGase protein in articular chondrocytes. Earlier work also suggested the presence of another form of TGase in chondrocytes. We sought to determine if articular chondrocytes contain the TGase, Factor XIIIA (FXIIIA). METHODS: Western blots with FXIIIA antibody were used to detect FXIIIA in young and old porcine articular chondrocytes and articular cartilage vesicles (ACVs). The presence of FXIIIA mRNA was confirmed by RT-PCR. RESULTS: Old chondrocyte conditioned medium, cytosol, and membrane fractions contained FXIIIA protein on Western blots, while less FXIIIA was detectable in cell fractions or media from young chondrocytes. ACVs also contained FXIIIA. FXIIIA mRNA was demonstrated by PCR in old and young chondrocytes. CONCLUSIONS: FXIIIA is present in articular chondrocytes. FXIIIA levels correlate with TGase activity in chondrocytes. The presence of two forms of TGase in articular chondrocytes suggest an important function for this enzyme family in articular cartilage.     

软骨细胞形态、表型与胞间通讯研究

探讨体外培养下新生兔软骨细胞的缝隙连接与软骨细胞形态、表型的关系。方法 向96孔板内的第5代新生兔膝关节软骨细胞培养基内加入荧光染料CFDA－AM，激光共聚焦显微镜测量不同形态的单个软骨细胞内的荧光强度；以激光淬灭软骨细胞内的荧光后定时测量荧光恢复曲线。将因股骨颈骨折行人工关节置换的人股骨头关节软骨切成20μm薄片，同样加入荧光染一测定激光淬灭前后荧光强度。结果 各种形态的扁平状软骨细胞摄入CFDA－AM后平均荧光强度差异很大平均83（1－274），平均值明显低于球形软骨细胞者平均2057（340－3538）；只有集落中央的球形软骨细胞才有逐渐的荧光恢复；但关节软骨隐窝内软骨细胞内的荧光经激光淬灭后可以恢复。结论 软骨细胞的形态影响其荧光染料的摄入量；缝隙连接只出现在球形软骨细胞之间，与软骨细胞的特有表型同时出现；股骨头人关节软骨陷窝内的软骨细胞间有缝隙连接存在，可以进行活体组织原位缝隙连接研究。     

Brother of CDO (BOC) expression in equine articular cartilage

Brother of CDO (BOC) is a cell surface receptor that derives its name from the structurally related protein, cell adhesion molecule-related/down-regulated by oncogenes (CDO, sometimes CDON). High levels of BOC mRNA and protein expression have been described in embryonic tissues with active cell proliferation and ongoing cellular differentiation(1,2). A microarray-based screen of RNA isolated from 11 different adult equine tissues unexpectedly identified BOC as having an expression pattern restricted to articular cartilage. The objective of this study was to further investigate BOC expression in adult articular cartilage relative to other tissues. Both RT-qPCR and mRNA sequencing confirmed the microarray data. Steady state BOC mRNA levels in articular cartilage were substantially higher than in the other adult tissues tested, neonatal tendon, placenta, and whole embryo. The expression of BOC displayed a pattern of tissue specificity comparable to well established cartilage matrix protein biomarkers. BOC mRNA levels in articular cartilage increased with age, but were rapidly down-regulated when chondrocytes were enzymatically isolated from the cartilage matrix and expanded in monolayer culture. Relative expression patterns of CDO were broadly similar, but displayed lower fold change differences. A functional role in articular cartilage that involves Hedgehog signaling is suggested by the known binding affinity of BOC for all three Hedgehog ligands. These data also extend BOC and CDO biology to a post-mitotic and highly differentiated cell type within a mature tissue.     

Articular cartilage preservation and storage. III. Quantitative zonal analysis of cytoplasmic components of stored versus in vivo articular cartilage chondrocytes

The cytoplasmic components of chondrocytes in the various zones of articular cartilage of the medial femoral condyle of six-week-old male New Zealand white rabbits stored in tissue culture medium at 37 degrees in 5% CO2 and air were quantitated from electron micrographs, and the results were compared statistically with the cytoplasmic components of chondrocytes in the corresponding zones of in vivo articular cartilage. The major changes that occurred during storage were: (1) an increase in the amount of lipid bodies in chondrocytes in the tangential, transitional, and calcified zones; (2) a decrease in the number of holes in the cytoplasm of chondrocytes in the radial and calcified zones; (3) a decrease in the amount of endoplasmic reticulum in the radial and calcified zones; and (4) an increase in cell size and cytosol area in the tangential and transitional zones but a significant decrease in cell size and cytosol area in the calcified zone. Stored articular cartilage chondrocytes demonstrated cellular changes associated with aging, whereas in vivo articular cartilage chondrocytes demonstrated changes associated with degeneration. The matrix of stored articular cartilage in the tangential, transitional, and upper part of the radial zones showed a decrease in opacity due to a decrease in the number of collagen fibers per unit area of matrix, a condition termed "chondroporosis." This study demonstrates that articular cartilage stored in standard tissue culture medium under ideal physiological conditions is morphologically abnormal. Based on these findings, one would not expect such stored cartilage to remain functionally intact when transplanted to replace articular cartilage loss.     

Comparison of gene expression patterns in articular cartilage and dedifferentiated articular chondrocytes

During monolayer culture, articular chondrocytes dedifferentiate into fibroblast‐like cells. The mechanisms underlying this process are poorly understood. We sought to further characterize dedifferentiation by identifying an extended panel of genes that distinguish articular cartilage from dedifferentiated chondrocytes. Thirty‐nine candidate marker‐genes were identified from previous studies on articular‐cartilage gene‐expression. Real‐time PCR was used to evaluate the mRNA levels for these candidates in calf articular cartilage and dedifferentiated articular chondrocytes. Twenty‐two of the candidate marker genes exhibited at least a two‐fold difference in gene expression in the two cell types. Twelve of these genes had at least a ten‐fold difference in gene expression. Tenascin C (TNC), type I collagen (COL1A1), and hypoxia‐inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF1α) showed the highest relative expression levels in dedifferentiated chonodrocytes. Type II collagen (COL2A1), type XI collagen (COL11A2), and superficial zone protein (SZP) showed the highest relative expression levels in articular cartilage. In contrast to previous findings, fibromodulin mRNA, and protein levels were higher in dedifferentiated chondrocytes. Compared to smaller subsets of markers, this panel of 12 highly differentially expressed genes may more precisely distinguish articular cartilage from dedifferentiated chondrocytes. Since many of the genes up‐regulated in dedifferentiated chondrocytes are also expressed during cartilage development, dedifferentiated chondrocytes may possess features of cartilage precursor cells. © 2011 Orthopaedic Research Society Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 30:234–245, 2012     

人肋软骨细胞体外培养中生长代谢及功能的变化

目的　通过检测体外培养的人肋软骨细胞老化过程中Ⅰ、Ⅱ型胶原和蛋白聚糖(aggrecan)的表达变化 ,为组织工程软骨构建的种子细胞选择适宜的回植时机。方法　取体外培养的P1 ～P5人肋软骨细胞 ,通过观察细胞形态 ,细胞增殖率 ,Alcianblue法定量检测每代Aggrecan中GAG含量 ,免疫组化蛋白水平观察Ⅰ、Ⅱ型胶原表达及RT PCR从mRNA水平分析Ⅰ、Ⅱ型胶原及Aggrecan基因表达量。结果　人肋软骨细胞从第 3代起逐渐向成纤维样细胞形态转换 ;每代软骨细胞Aggrecan中GAG含量随传代次数逐渐降低 ,第 3代后处于较低水平 ;Ⅰ、Ⅱ型胶原的表达在蛋白水平及mRNA水平基本一致 ,第 2代以前Ⅱ型胶原表达较强 ,Ⅰ型胶原表达较弱 ,之后随传代Ⅱ型胶原表达减弱 ,Ⅰ型胶原表达逐渐增强 ;而Aggrecan在第 3代以前表达较高 ,从第 4代后明显下降。结论　人软骨细胞体外培养老化过程中综合细胞扩增及细胞功能因素 ,第 2代的软骨细胞 (体外扩增约 18 32 6倍 )可作为构建人组织工程软骨的种子细胞。     

Effect of low-power He-Ne laser irradiation on rabbit articular chondrocytes in vitro

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: In the orthopaedic field, the repair of articular cartilage is still a difficult problem, because of the physiological characters of cartilaginous tissues and chondrocytes. To find an effective method of stimulating their regeneration, this in vitro study focuses on the biostimulation of rabbit articular chondrocytes by low-power He-Ne laser. STUDY DESIGN/MATERIALS AND METHODS: The articular chondrocytes isolated from the cartilage of the medial condyle of the femur of the rabbit were incubated in DMEM/HamF(12) medium. The second passage culture were spread on 24 petri dishes and were irradiated with laser at power output of 2-12 mW for 6.5 minutes, corresponding to the energy density of 1-6 J/cm(2). Laser treatment was performed three times at a 24-hour interval. After lasering, incubation was continued for 24 hours. Non-irradiated cells were kept under the same conditions as the irradiated ones. The cell proliferation activity was evaluated with a XTT colorimetric method and the cell secretion activity was analyzed by metachromasia and immunocytochemistry. RESULTS: Irradiation of 4-6 J/cm(2) increased the cell numbers and revealed a considerably higher cell proliferation activity comparing to control cultures. Thereinto, the energy density of 4 and 5 J/cm(2) remarkably increased cell growth, with positive effect on synthesis and secretion of extracellular matrix. CONCLUSIONS: The present study showed that a particular laser irradiation stimulates articular chondrocytes proliferation and secretion. These findings might be clinically relevant, indicating that low-power laser irradiation treatment is likely to achieve the repair of articular cartilage in clinic.     

Altered electrophysiological responses to mechanical stimulation and abnormal signalling through alpha5beta1 integrin in chondrocytes from osteoarthritic cartilage

OBJECTIVE: To establish whether chondrocytes from normal and osteoarthritic human articular cartilage recognize and respond to pressure induced mechanical strain in a similar manner.DESIGN: Chondrocytes, extracted from macroscopically normal and osteoarthritic human articular cartilage obtained from knee joints at autopsy, were grown in monolayer culture and subjected to cyclical pressure-induced strain (PIS) in the absence or presence of anti-integrin antibodies, agents known to block ion channels and inhibitors of key molecules involved in the integrin-associated signalling pathways. The response of the cells to mechanical stimulation was assessed by measuring changes in membrane potential. RESULTS: Unlike chondrocytes from normal articular cartilage, which showed a membrane hyperpolarization response to PIS, chondrocytes from osteoarthritic cartilage responded by membrane depolarization. The mechanotransduction pathway involves alpha5beta1 integrins, stretch-activated ion channels, tyrosine kinases and phospholipase C but the actin cytoskeleton and protein kinase C, which are important in the membrane hyperpolarization response in normal chondrocytes, are not necessary for membrane depolarization in osteoarthritic chondrocytes in response to PIS. CONCLUSION: Chondrocytes derived from osteoarthritic cartilage show a different signalling pathway via alpha5beta1 integrin in response to mechanical stimulation which may be of importance in the production of phenotypic changes recognized to be present in diseased cartilage.