A review of the Salmonellosis surveillance systems in Italy: Evolution during the course of time within the international framework

This paper focuses on the history of the two systems that have been adopted in Italy for the surveillance of Salmonellosis and describes their respective characteristics. Both systems have been subsequently modified: (1) The National Laboratory-based Surveillance System (NLSS) which was created in 1967 for Enteropathogenic Bacteria and subsequently, in 1992, became part of the European computerised Laboratory-based Surveillance System of Salmonellae isolates, the SALM-NET (Salmonella network); (2) The National Infectious Disease Reporting System (NIDRS) which was set up in the 1930s, revised in 1990 and has been used, since 1994, along with the Infectious Disease Informative System (IDIS). The results obtained with the different surveillance systems are presented: (1) The number of isolates from the laboratory surveillance from 1973 to 1997 are described. Total Salmonellae isolates have a slope with an increasing trend from 4372 isolates in 1973 to 15,041 isolates in 1988 drastically dropping to 5479 isolates in 1990 and increasing again to 13,596 isolates in 1993. Attention is given particularly to the epidemiology of S. enteritidis in Italy which increased progressively since 1982 (225 isolates) to 5435 isolates in 1994. S. typhimurium showed a slightly increasing trend in the period 1973–1988 (from 1694 to 3383 isolates) then decreased for reaching again previous levels. S. typhi showed a marked reduction from 573 isolates in 1973 to 33 isolates in 1996. On the contrary, other less frequent serotypes increased. (2) The number of cases of Salmonellosis reported during 1971–1997 are also presented. Other Infections by Salmonellae increased from 12,516 cases in 1976 (renamed Non Typhoidal Salmonellosis in 1990) to more than 20,000 cases in 1992. The number of cases of Typhoid Fever and Infections by S. paratyphi are also described. Particular attention has to be paid to the parallel trends of Salmonellosis using both surveillance systems: number of isolates and number of cases, particularly comparing Other Infections by Salmonellae and total Salmonellae isolates: after the 1992–1993 peak, an initial decrease was observed.     

基于微球液态阵列分子技术的沙门菌血清分型研究

目的 了解基于微球液态阵列分子技术对广东省腹泻病例沙门菌分离株的分型效果。方法 在微球液态阵列分子平台上应用SSA试剂盒对沙门菌人源株进行分子血清分型。结果 2010-2014年广东省人源沙门菌4 942株分为189种血清型,前100种血清型占所有菌株的98.08%（4 847/4 942）,其中98%可用SSA试剂盒完整分型;采用SSA试剂盒检测198株菌O抗原,可检出181株;用SSA检测H抗原的结果（98.32%,528/537）与传统血清凝集试验结果相符;fljB基因的符合率为93.09%（175/188）,fljB基因假阴性率为7.35%（9/134）,假阳性率为7.41%（4/54）;sdf基因和Vi基因符合率均为100%;用SSA试剂盒检测12株血清不能分型的沙门菌,有11株能成功分型。结论 SSA试剂盒能对96%以上的广东省人源沙门菌株进行分子血清分型,其结果与传统方法符合率超过98%。基于微球液态阵列分子技术的血清分型法比传统方法更具有高通量且快速的特点。     

Surveillance of multidrug-resistant strains of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium in southern Italy in the years 1992–1997

Spread of multidrug-resistant strains of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium (S. typhimurium) is increasingly reported worldwide. The presence of a pattern of resistance to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, sulfonamides and tetracycline (ACSSuT), in some cases associated to trimethoprim and infrequently to quinolones, is of particular concern. This resistance pattern appears to be chromosomally encoded and, in most epidemiological studies, closely related to definitive type 104 (DT104).In southern Italy multidrug-resistant isolates of S. typhimurium had been identified since 1980, but only during 1992 S. typhimurium strains with chromosomally encoded drug resistance were first isolated from domestic animals.One hundred fifty-five isolates – 52.5% of the multidrug-resistant strains identified in the years 1992–1997 – were submitted to phage typing and plasmid profile analysis. Ribotyping was also performed in comparison with a random sample of 150 strains susceptible or resistant to three or less antibiotics identified in the same interval of time.Four ribotypes (RTs) -1, 5, 8, and 48 – included approximately 90% of the multiresistant strains, RT8 accounting for 61.2%. Phage type (PT) 193 is the most prevalent phage type.Phage typing and ribotyping suggest that few bacterial clones are involved in spread of multi- drug-resistant S. typhimurium strains in southern Italy.     

A study on prevalence of multi-drug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella in water sprinkled on fresh vegetables in Bareilly, Moradabad, and Kanpur (northern Indian cities)

Water-borne and food-borne diseases are common in summers and monsoons in India. This study between March 2004 to September 2004 on microbiological quality of water used by vegetable vendors to keep their vegetables fresh was conducted to asses the role of water as a source of Salmonella. Of the 309 samples collected from Bareilly (80 vegetable vendors, 47 ponds, five municipal water taps), Moradabad (74 vegetable vendors, three ponds, five municipal water taps) and Kanpur (84 vegetable vendors, six ponds, five municipal water taps), 82 (26.5%) and 27 (8.7%) had Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica strains, respectively. The study revealed that sprinkling water was contaminated with 0.00–6.81 log₁₀ cfu ml⁻¹ of coliforms, 4.16 log₁₀ to 9.46 log₁₀ cfu ml⁻¹ of heterotrophic aerobic bacteria, 0.00 to 7.23 log₁₀ cfu ml⁻¹ of non-lactose fermenters, 0.00 to 5.56 log₁₀ cfu ml⁻¹ of Salmonella and 0.00 to 7.77 log₁₀ cfu ml⁻¹ of yeast and moulds. Similarly, microbial counts in pond water samples (Bareilly) were 0.00 to 6.06 log₁₀ cfu ml⁻¹ of faecal coliforms, 5.12 log₁₀ to 8.09 log₁₀ cfu ml⁻¹ of heterotrophic aerobic bacteria, 0.00 to 6.37 log₁₀ cfu ml⁻¹ of non-lactose fermenters, 0.00 to 5.73 log₁₀ cfu ml⁻¹ of Salmonella and 0.00 to 7.82 cfu log₁₀ ml⁻¹ of yeasts and moulds. Presence of Salmonella in water sample had negative correlation with number of coliforms and positive correlation with number of non-lactose fermenters, as of the 16 (6.7%) Salmonella positive samples of water from vegetable vendors, ten were negative for coliforms. Similarly, of the 11 pond-water samples positive for Salmonella, six were negative for coliforms, and negative correlation (−0.55) between coliform count and Salmonella was statistically significant (r_0.01). On the other hand, Salmonella counts could be positively correlated (r_0.01) with counts of non-lactose fermenters. Salmonella isolates from water for sprinkling on vegetables belonged to S. Anatum (1), S. Newport (1), S. Saintpaul (6), S. Virchow (4) and S. Weltevreden (4) serovars while isolates pond water samples belonged to S. Saintpaul (9) and S. Newport (2) serovars. Except two Salmonella isolates (one each of serovar S. Anatum and S. Weltevreden), all had multiple drug resistance and could be classified into 21 resistotypes. All the Salmonella isolates were sensitive to ceftriaxone and streptomycin while resistant to sulphamethizole. The study indicated that pond water (used by farmers for washing vegetables) and water used by vegetable vendors for sprinkling on vegetables might have an important role as a source of multiple-drug-resistant zoonotic Salmonella.     

In vitro activity of eight antibiotics againstSalmonella andShigella species

The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimetoprimsulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX), ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, pefloxacin, enoxacin and fleroxacin forSalmonella spp. (n=72) andShigella spp. (n=52) were established.S. typhi isolates were all susceptible to all of the antibiotics tested. In non-typhi salmonellae andShigella spp., resistance to ampicillin, chloramphenicol and TMP-SMX with various rates were encountered, but all isolates were susceptible to fluoroquinolones.     

Salmonella in slaughter pigs of German origin: An epidemiological study

The Salmonella prevalence in slaughter pigs of German origin was determined in seven abattoirs located in different regions of the country between February and June 1996. A total of 11,942 pigs delivered to the abattoirs in 752 batches, most of them comprised of pigs from individual finishing farms, was investigated by the bacteriological examination of faecal and gut lymph node samples, as well as of surface swabs taken from the carcasses. Salmonellae were isolated from 3.7% of the faecal samples, 3.3% of the lymph nodes and 4.7% of the surface swabs. The estimated overall prevalence of Salmonellae was 6.2% in the slaughter pigs, ranging between 1.9% and 12% in individual abattoirs. In the samples taken from carcasses, the estimated prevalence of Salmonellae reached 10.3%. 648 out of 752 batches could be included in a statistical analysis. No Salmonellae were detected in nearly 70 percent of the batches included in this analysis (n = 648). High Salmonella prevalences of more than 50 percent positive animals were detected only in 13 batches (2.0%). A statistically significant influence of the duration of the transport of slaughter pigs to the abattoirs or the waiting period in the abattoirs prior to slaughter could not be detected.     

健康人携带金黄色葡萄球菌耐药表型及基因型研究

目的 调查我国健康人携带的金黄色葡萄球菌药物敏感性及大环内酯类耐药基因分布情况.方法 应用E-test方法,对2009－2011年收集的100株健康从业人员携带菌株进行16种抗生素的药物敏感性分析,以D 试验测定红霉素对克林霉素的诱导耐药表型.采用spa分型对上述菌株进行分型分析.利用PCR检测基因:甲基化酶[erm(A),erm(B),erm(C),erm(F),erm(T),erm(Y),erm(33)和erm(G)]、ATP结合转运蛋白[msr(A)和msr(D)]、主要易化子[mef(A)]、酯酶[ere(A)]及磷酸化酶[mph(C)],并与猪来源菌株38株(31株MRSA,7株MSSA)和患者来源MRSA菌株20株进行比较.结果 健康人群携带菌株对红霉素和克林霉素耐药率较高,分别为52%和27%.克林霉素诱导耐药率为29%.共鉴定35个spa型别,其中51.0%的spa型别为t189、t571、t002、t796、t437、t034和t701.52株健康人菌株主要携带erm(C)(57.7%)和erm(B)(34.6%), 95.0%的临床分离菌株携带erm(A), 100.0%猪鼻拭子分离菌株均携带erm(C)菌株.结论 携带erm(C)和erm(B)耐药基因的大环内酯类耐药菌株在健康人群中广泛存在,这些耐药基因在金黄色葡萄球菌中呈散在克隆传播.     

Serotype distribution and antibiotic resistance of 140 pneumococcal isolates from pediatric patients with upper respiratory infections in Beijing, 2010

In the present study, the serotype distribution and antibiotic resistance of S. pneumoniae from pediatric patients with upper respiratory infections in Beijing, 2010 were described. 140 pneumococcal isolates were obtained, and the prevailing five serotypes were 19F (18.6%), 23F (9.3%), 14 (9.3%), 15 (9.3%), and 6A (7.1%). The vaccine coverage of PCV7, PCV10, and PCV13 were 43.6%, 43.6%, and 60.0%, respectively. According to the CLSI 2010 criteria, 99.3% of the S. pneumoniae isolates were susceptible to penicillin. The resistance rates to erythromycin and azithromycin were 96.4% and 97.1%, respectively. Meanwhile, 64.3% (90/140) of all pneumococcal isolates were multidrug-resistant S. pneumoniae (MDRSP). PCV13 covered 68.9% (62/90) of MDRSP strains, whereas it was 47.8% (43/90) for PCV7. ErmB was the dominant macrolide-resistance gene, whereas 30.4% pneumococcal isolates expressed both ermB and mefA. No isolate expressed ermTR. The potential coverage of PCV13 is higher than PCV7 and PCV10 because high rates of serotypes 6A and 19A, and the conjugate vaccines could prevent the spread of MDRSP. S. pneumoniae is still sensitive to penicillin. The resistance rate of S. pneumoniae to macrolides is high and ermB is the dominant macrolide-resistance gene in China, so continued surveillance of the antimicrobial susceptibility of S. pneumoniae may be necessary.     

Comparative study of three different DNA fingerprint techniques for molecular typing of Shigella flexneri strains isolated in Romania

In this study, 97 epidemiologically unrelated Shigella flexneri strains isolated during 1994 (69 isolates) and 1997 (28 isolates) were characterised by ribotyping, enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus sequence-based PCR typing, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Number of strains belonging to each of the six serotypes is selected equal to their distribution in Romania. The isolates comprise 24 ribotypes based on combination of two restriction patterns obtained with HindIII and PstI, respectively, 7 enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR types, and 92 XbaI pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) patterns grouped in 31 pulsotypes at Dice coefficients of 85% similarity. We find no significant difference in the distribution of isolates collected during the two periods. Macrorestriction analysis by PFGE offers maximal discrimination. There seems to be little genetic variability among circulating S. flexneri strains of serotype 2a, suggesting that even a combination of several molecular techniques, including PFGE, could not easily differentiate an outbreak strain from temporally associated independent isolates.     

儿童侵袭性肺炎链球菌感染的血清型和耐药性

目的 了解某医院住院患儿侵袭性肺炎链球菌感染的临床特征以及菌株的血清型和耐药性,以期指导临床合理用药,寻找防治侵袭性肺炎链球菌感染的有效方法.方法 回顾性分析2014年1月—2018年12月该院明确诊断为侵袭性肺炎链球菌感染患儿的临床资料,肺炎链球菌的药敏结果、血清型,以及疫苗对其血清型覆盖情况.结果 74例侵袭性肺炎...     

一起食源性疾病暴发事件分离的2种血清型沙门菌的病原学分析

目的 对一起食源性疾病暴发事件中分离的2种血清型沙门菌进行病原学分析。方法 采集2022年9月8日某学校暴发事件中病例肛拭子11件、可疑污染食品13件和环境样本10件；对病例肛拭子分别使用亚硒酸盐煌绿增菌液和脑心浸液肉汤（BHI）进行增菌培养，在完成常见肠道病原菌荧光PCR检测后，根据结果开展相应致病菌的分离培养；对可疑污染食品参照食品安全国家标准进行检测；每份肛拭子样本和食品样本均挑取多个疑似沙门菌菌落进行血清学凝集和全基因组测序；根据全基因组测序结果确定沙门菌血清型，基于菌株核心基因组单核苷酸多态性（SNP）进行聚类分析。结果 病例肛拭子和可疑污染食品沙门菌检出率分别为9/11和5/13，其中4例病例肛拭子和4件可疑污染食品样本均分离到2种血清型沙门菌（乌干达沙门菌和伊迪坎沙门菌），其余阳性样本分离沙门菌均为单一乌干达沙门菌血清型或单一伊迪坎沙门菌血清型。11件病例肛拭子样本接种BHI增菌液后12 h和24 h沙门菌荧光PCR检出率均为9/11，与分离培养结果一致。2种血清型沙门菌在基于核心基因组SNP构建的聚类树中形成2个相互独立且遗传距离较远的分支，而每一种血清型沙门菌也表现出基因组多态性，乌干达沙门菌之间SNP差异个数介于0~14个，伊迪坎沙门菌之间SNP差异个数介于0~23个。结论 本次事件为乌干达沙门菌和伊迪坎沙门菌共同导致食源性疾病暴发事件，基于BHI对病例肛拭子增菌并进行沙门菌荧光PCR检测的方案可在暴发中应用。     

Changes in the incidence of Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteremia and its serotypes over 10 years in one hospital in South Korea

Here, we examined the distribution of pneumococcal serotypes and the antibiotic susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae in clinical blood isolates. The serotypes of 91 S. pneumoniae blood isolates, collected from January 2003 to March 2014, were identified by multiplex PCR and sequencing. The most common serotypes were 19F, 19A, 3, 4, and 14, accounting for 53.8% of the total. The serotype coverage rates of pneumococcal conjugated vaccine (PCV) 7, PCV10, and PCV13 were different during three test periods: 38.7%, 70.9%, and 93.5% in period I (2003–2005), 46.8%, 50.0%, and 75.0% in period II (2006–2008), and 28.5%, 32.1%, and 64.2% in period III (2009–2014), respectively. By contrast, the number of non-PCV13 serotypes increased from 6.4% in period I to 25% and 35.7% in periods II and III, respectively. The susceptibility of non-PCV13 serotypes to antimicrobial agents (penicillin, erythromycin, cefotaxime, and meropenem) was higher than that of PCV serotypes. In particular, non-PCV13 serotypes showed 100% and 95% susceptibility to penicillin and cefotaxime, respectively. Serotypes 19A and 19F showed high prevalence (79.1%) among 24 multi-drug resistant (MDR) isolates. Notably, all serotype 19A isolates were MDR. From January 2003 to March 2014, the proportion of non-PCV13 serotype pneumococci in blood isolates increased whereas the coverage rate of PCV13 decreased. Effective pneumococcal vaccines are required to protect against MDR serotype 19A isolates and the increasing number of non-PCV13 serotypes.     

Population structure, origins and evolution of major Salmonella enterica clones

The genus Salmonella consists of two species S. enterica and S. bongori. S. enterica has a well defined subspecies structure with seven subspecies consistently delineated by sequence variation. Frequency of recombination between subspecies and within a subspecies is markedly different. Subspecies I undergoes frequent recombination as demonstrated recently, demystifying the long-held belief that Salmonella is a highly clonal organism. The majority of disease causing serovars are from subspecies I with the most important serovars in human health being Typhimurium and Typhi. Typhimurium has developed considerable diversity and may be a very old serovar. The majority of the isolates belong to a single clonal complex by multilocus sequence typing. Typhimurium isolates are divided into phage types and some of the phage types do not have a single origin as determined using mutational changes. Phage type DT104 is heterogeneous and represented in multiple sequence types, with its multidrug-resistant variant most successful causing epidemics in many parts of the world. Typhi, a human restricted serovar, is relatively young compared to Typhimurium, and has a low level of sequence variation. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been shown to be very useful for typing and resolving relationships within Typhi. Genome sequences of 19 isolates revealed more than 1700 SNPs. The fully resolved phylogenetic tree allows one to trace the mutational changes occurred during clonal diversification. Genome wide SNPs have greatly enhanced our understanding of the evolution of Salmonella clones.     

广东省2018-2022年侵袭性非伤寒沙门菌病原学特征分析

目的 了解2018-2022年广东省侵袭性非伤寒沙门菌（iNTS）的血清型分布、耐药性以及分子流行情况,为沙门菌侵袭性感染的防治提供科学依据。方法 对2018-2022年广东省分离自血液和粪便样本的沙门菌进行血清学鉴定、药敏试验、多位点序列分型（MLST）和全基因组测序。同时利用微生物基因注释系统对测序结果开展耐药基因与毒力因子注释。结果 136株iNTS分为25种血清型,肠炎沙门菌占38.24%（52/136）。以鼠伤寒变种沙门菌作为对照计算其余iNTS血清型的OR值,奥雷宁堡、里森和波摩那3种沙门菌血清型的OR值较高,分别为423.50、352.92和211.75。iNTS耐药率在0.74%~66.91%之间,普遍低于非iNTS株（3.90%~77.21%）。iNTS耐药以氨苄西林和四环素为主,耐药率分别为66.91%（91/136）和50.00%（68/136）,而对环丙沙星（5.88%,8/136）、头孢他啶（5.88%,8/136）、庆大霉素（5.13%,7/136）和头孢西丁（0.74%,1/136）耐药率较低。iNTS携带多种耐药基因与毒力因子,但尚未发现共同毒力因子分布特征。MLST聚类分析显示,iNTS分为26种序列型别,ST11型占38.24%（52/136）。结论 2018-2022年广东省iNTS以肠炎沙门菌为主,其中奥雷宁堡、里森和波摩那3种血清型可能与更高的侵袭性感染风险有关。iNTS对临床一线治疗药物（头孢类和氟喹诺酮类抗生素）敏感,序列呈现高度多样性且具有明确的系统发育分支,以ST11型为本地优势克隆群。     

Pneumococcal serotype distribution and antimicrobial resistance in Chinese children hospitalized for pneumonia

A prospective study was performed to determine serotype distribution and antimicrobial resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae) from Chinese children <5 years old meeting pneumonia criteria. A total of 3865 children were enrolled and 338 S. pneumoniae isolates were obtained. The most frequent serotypes were 19F (55.6%), 19A (13.9%), 23F (10.1%), 6B (4.7%), and 14 (3.6%). The 7-, 10- and 13-valent conjugate vaccines, respectively, covered 76.3%, 76.9%, and 92.3% of isolates. Out of the isolates, six (1.8%) were penicillin resistant. All except 1 of the isolates were resistant to erythromycin. Serotype 19A showed the highest drug resistance. The use of PCV7 has the potential to prevent a substantial number of pneumococcal infections. However, PCV13 is likely to prevent more episodes of pneumococcal disease in China because of the high rates of 19A.     

Epidemiology of antibiotic resistance of human nontyphoidal salmonellae in Greece during an 8-year period (1990-1997)

The susceptibility patterns of 1027 nontyphoidal Salmonella strains of human origin, isolated in Greece between 1990 and 1997, were determined by broth microdilution. From 1990 to 1995, the overall incindence of resistance for both Salmonella enteritidis and S. typhimurium increased. From 1996 onwards, a decrease was observed, which was more evident for S. enteritidis. Regarding the other examined serotypes a substantial proportion of resistant isolates was found only for S. Virhow and S. Hadar.     

Epidemiologic study of Staphylococcus strains isolated from clinical material in 24 Italian Hospitals

A nationwide epidemiologic study of clinical Staphylococcus isolates was performed in Italy by 24 operative units distributed throughout the country. A total of 7,017 Staphylococcus strains were examined according to a standard protocol. Three species of acknowledged importance in human infections (namely S. aureus, S. epidermidis, and S. saprophyticus) were identified singly, whereas the other staphylococci were considered as a whole and designated Staphylococcus spp. S. aureus totalled 53% of total isolates and was reported by most operative units as the predominant species among isolates both from various inpatient departments and from outpatients. S. saprophyticus was twofold more frequent among isolates from out- than from inpatients. Susceptibility to methicillin varied considerably from hospital to hospital, but a general tendency toward an increasing spread of resistance was noted. The overall incidence of methicillin resistance (29%) resulted from' a wide. range of values generally higher in isolates from inpatients (35°0) than from outpatients (21%). Particularly high percentages of resistance (45%) were recorded in isolates from intensive care departments. Susceptibility testing to four additional -lactams (cefoxitin, cefuroxime, cefotaxime, and piperacillin) and to four aminoglycosides (gentamicin, tobramycin, amikacin, and netilmicin) indicated that antibiotic resistance was widespread and in all species more frequent among methicillin-resistant than among methicillin-sensitive staphylococci. Netilmicm proved more active than the other antibiotics tested; its greater activity was most evident against methicillin-resistant strains. Coagulase-negative staphylococci were more resistant than S. aureus to methicillin and most of the other antibiotics, suggesting their increasing involvement in human infections.Corresponding author.     

Distribution, dynamics and antibiotic resistance patterns of Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes causing acute otitis media in children in southern Israel during the 10 year-period before the introduction of the 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine

Objectives

To determine the dynamics of serotype prevalence, potential coverage by pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV) and antibiotic resistance patterns of Streptococcus pneumoniae causing acute otitis media (AOM) in children in southern Israel before PCV7 introduction in the routine immunization program in Israel.

Methods

All S. pneumoniae isolates from middle ear fluid from children with AOM during 1999-2008 were included. Prospectively collected demographic data on S. pneumoniae serotypes and antibiotic resistance patterns were analyzed.

Results

A total of 14,911 tympanocenteses yielded 5281(35%) S. pneumoniae. Proportion of S. pneumoniae-AOM did not vary significantly (overall 35%; 33% in 2007; 38% in 2002 and 2003). The most frequent serotypes were 19F, 14, 23F and 19A; in both Jewish and Bedouin children; serotypes 6A and 19A contributed 6% and 10%, respectively, of all S. pneumoniae isolates. Serotypes included in PCV7, PCV10 and PCV13 represented 60%, 64%, 85% in Jewish children vs. 49%, 55% and 74%, respectively, in Bedouin children (P < 0.001). Nonsusceptibility to TMP/SMX decreased significantly, in parallel with a significant increase in the nonsusceptibility to erythromycin, clindamycin and in multidrug resistant (MDR) isolates. No changes were recorded in the proportion of S. pneumoniae isolates with penicillin MIC ≥ 1.0 μg/ml. The proportion of penicillin- and erythromycin-nonsusceptible and of MDR serotype 6A and 19A isolates increased significantly in Bedouin children.

Conclusions

1) No significant changes were recorded in the yearly proportions of serotypes 23F, 19F, 19A, 14 and 6A in both ethnic populations; 2) Potential coverage of the 3 PCVs was higher in Jewish children than in Bedouin children; 3) The relatively high coverage of macrolides- and multidrug-resistant S. pneumoniae by PCV13 and lack of increase in penicillin, erythromycin and multidrug nonsusceptibility among non-PCV13 isolates is encouraging.     

Salmonella serotype Virchow causing salmonellosis in a Spanish region. Characterization and survey of clones by DNA fingerprinting, phage typing and antimicrobial resistance

The diversity of Salmonella serotype Virchow organisms causing human salmonellosis in a Spanish region over 1990–1996 was studied by genetic and phenotypic procedures. Isolates showing identical DNA fingerprintings (ribotypes, RAPD-, REP- and ERIC-types) were clustered into the same lineage. Eight lineages were defined, of which only one caused diseases throughout the studied period. Eleven phage types (PTs) were represented, the most frequent being PTs 8, 19, 31, throughout the study period, and PT4a only during 1994. Class I integrons with variable regions of 1000-, 1600-, and 2300-bp in size were respectively present in 24, 3 and 5 multiresistant isolates; 43.5% of isolates were susceptible to antimicrobials, the rest were grouped into 17 R-profiles, including from one up to eight resistances. Plasmids could be recovered from 71.5% of isolates and grouped into 25 plasmid profiles (with 1–7 plasmids each); a 3.6 kb cryptic-plasmid and a 60 kb virulence-plasmid were those most frequently found. Phage type, presence and size of integrons, and resistance profile were used to differentiate 39 clones. During the period studied 135 cases of Virchow salmonellosis were identified; 93 were apparently sporadic whereas the remainder were associated with four outbreaks. Infants under 1 year constituted the most frequent age group, with 30 gastroenteritis and two septicaemia episodes. In the four outbreaks, different clones falling into the prevalent lineage were implicated but each clone was involved in only one outbreak.     

A population-based longitudinal study on the incidence and disease burden of gastroenteritis and Campylobacter and Salmonella infection in four regions of the Netherlands

The aim of this study was to estimate the incidence of gastroenteritis and Campylobacterand Salmonellainfection in the Dutch population, the disease burden, and the percentage of patients with gastroenteritis that consults a general practitioner. A sample of 6243 persons was invited to participate in the study, i.e. completing a questionnaire and submitting stool samples. The follow-up period was 17 weeks. In total, 2206 persons participated (= 35%), contributing 660 person years. The incidence (standardised by age and gender) of first episodes of gastroenteritis was 45 per 100 person years. Among patients with gastroenteritis, Salmonellaand Campylobacterwere cultured in 1.6 and 4.5%, respectively. The standardised incidence of first Campylobacterinfections was 9 per 100 person years, of first Salmonellainfections 4 per 100 person years. For 22% of the episodes of gastroenteritis, a general practitioner was consulted (either by phone or by practice visit). For 52% of the episodes, medicine were used. For 34% of the episodes, absence from school was reported and for 15%, absence from work was reported. Despite of possible biases, we can conclude that the incidence of gastroenteritis is very high and causes considerable use of medication, consultation of general practitioners and absence from work and school.