Suspected testicular torsion and ischemia: evaluation with color Doppler sonography

Color Doppler sonography was performed in 32 patients with a painful scrotum in whom testicular ischemia from torsion or postherniorrhaphy was clinically suspected. Surgical correlation was available in 15 patients, and scintigraphic correlation was available in 17 patients. Seven of the 32 patients were diagnosed as having testicular ischemia from torsion. Color Doppler flow imaging demonstrated a lack of intratesticular flow in six of the seven testes with torsion and relatively normal intratesticular flow in one of the patients with acute torsion. Normal or increased intratesticular flow was demonstrated by color Doppler in all 57 of the nonischemic testes. Using the single criterion of presence or absence of identifiable intratesticular flow, the authors found that color Doppler was 86% sensitive, 100% specific, and 97% accurate in the diagnosis of torsion and ischemia in the painful scrotum. Color Doppler sonography is an accurate, noninvasive means of rapidly assessing perfusion of the testis in the painful scrotum.     

Acute testicular torsion in children: the role of sonography in the diagnostic workup

Acute testicular torsion in children is an emergency and has to be diagnosed urgently. D oppler sonography is increasingly used in imaging the acute scrotum. Nevertheless, in uncertain cases, surgical exploration is required. In this study, we attempted to define the role of Doppler sonography in the diagnostic workup of the acutely painful scrotum. All patients admitted between 1999 and 2005 with acute scrotal pain were included. After clinical assessment, patients were imaged by Doppler sonography with a ‘‘high-end’’ instrument. In cases of absent arterial perfusion of the testis in Doppler sonography, surgical exploration was carried out. Patients with unaffected perfusion were followed clinically by ultrasound for up to 2 years. Sixty-one infants and children aged 1 day to 17 years (median: 7.9 years) were included. In 14 cases, sonography demonstrated absent central perfusion, with abnormal parenchymal echogenicity in six. Absence of venous blood flow together with reduction of central arterial perfusion was found in one infant. In these 15 patients, surgical exploration confirmed testicular torsion. Among the other 46 patients, we found four cases with increased testicular perfusion and 27 with increased perfusion of the epididymis. In one infant, a testicular tumour was found sonographically, and orchiectomy confirmed diagnosis of a teratoma. Follow-up examinations of the conservatively treated patients showed good clinical outcome with physiologic central perfusion as well as normal echogenic pattern of both testes. No case of testicular torsion was missed. By means of Doppler sonography, an unequivocal statement regarding testicular perfusion was possible in all cases. The initial Doppler diagnosis was confirmed by operative evaluation and follow-up ultrasound. Testicular torsion can therefore be excluded by correctly performed ultrasound with modern equipment. Patrick Gunther and Jens-Peter Schenk contributed equally to this work     

Color Doppler sonography of normal and torsed testicular appendages in children

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of our study was to determine the size and appearance of normal and torsed testicular appendages on color Doppler sonography. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Thirty-three patients with acute scrotal pain underwent gray-scale and color Doppler sonography and subsequent surgery. Twenty-two patients had torsion of the appendix testis, six had epididymitis, three had torsion of the testis, and two had torsion of the appendix epididymidis. The testicular appendages of 30 patients and the testes of three were excised and sent to the laboratory for histopathologic examination. RESULTS: A testicular appendage was identified on color Doppler sonography in 23 patients (21 patients with torsed appendages and two patients with epididymitis). The torsed appendixes testis measured from 4.1 to 16.3 mm, and the normal appendixes in the two patients with epididymitis measured 4.1 and 5.6 mm. With the visualization of an appendix larger than 5.6 mm as the sonographic diagnostic criterion for torsion of a testicular appendage, sensitivity was 68.2% (95% confidence interval (CI), 45.1-85.3%), and specificity was 100% (CI, 74.7-100%). CONCLUSION. The identification of a testicular appendage larger than 5.6 mm is suggestive of torsion. Therefore, depending on the patients' clinical conditions, these cases can be treated conservatively when an appendage larger than 5.6 mm is identified.     

Hodentorsion: Diagnose, Differenzialdiagnose und Therapie im Kindesalter

Acute scrotum represents an emergency situation although testicular torsion is present in less than 20% of the cases. Sonography has meanwhile become the definitive modality for diagnosis. Its increasing use before surgical intervention has led to technical improvements in ultrasound diagnostics and critical assessment of ultrasound criteria to exclude testicular torsion as well as standardization of examination procedures. Central arterial and venous perfusion shown to be bilaterally equal on Doppler sonography is the most important criterion for excluding torsion.This article discusses other criteria such as the "resistance index," comparison of parenchymal structure of both testes, evidence for spermatic cord torsion, or differences between the sides in perfusion of the testicular parenchyma and highlights the difficulties involved in partial and intermittent testicular torsion. Alternative investigative methods and the significance of sonography in the differential diagnosis of other underlying causes are addressed. In summary, the combination of interpreting B-mode imaging, color Doppler, and power Doppler sonography and analyzing Doppler flow curves after clinical examination results in successful and conclusive evaluation of the testes in cases of acute scrotum in boys.     

Color Doppler US in the evaluation of acute scrotal disease

Twenty-seven patients presented with painful acute scrotal swelling. After a clinical impression was established, all patients underwent diagnostic imaging with color Doppler ultrasound (US). Seven patients underwent surgical exploration for testicular torsion diagnosed with color Doppler US (100% operative confirmation), one underwent radical orchiectomy for treatment of seminoma, and one underwent orchidopexy for treatment of a freely mobile testis. Eighteen patients were treated for nonoperable conditions. Diagnoses made with color Doppler US correlated with final clinical diagnoses in all patients. In 10 of 27 patients (38%), the diagnosis was established at color Doppler US. Until now, nuclear scanning has had a paramount role in the evaluation of equivocal cases of acute scrotal disease. Results show that color Doppler US helps accurately correlate anatomy and perfusion in real time and may prove to be the definitive imaging technique for the diagnostic evaluation of acute scrotal pain or swelling.     

彩色多普勒超声在小儿睾丸扭转诊断中的价值

目的探讨彩色多普勒超声对小儿睾丸扭转的诊断价值。方法对44例临床疑诊睾丸扭转男孩(年龄1岁～15岁,平均8岁)首先用二维超声显示双侧睾丸附睾形态、结构及内部回声,再用彩色多普勒观察血流情况,所有病例经手术证实。结果44例中的41例睾丸扭转患者患侧睾丸血流减少或消失。结论彩色多普勒诊断睾丸扭转有很高的特异性,简便无创,应作为诊断睾丸扭转的首选方法。     

Evaluation of testicular viability by power Doppler ultrasonography in experimentally induced acute testicular torsion

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine whether torsed testis viability can be evaluated by ultrasonography (US) including power Doppler US in an experimental model of acute testicular torsion. METHOD: Eighteen rats underwent unilateral 540 degrees testicular torsion and contralateral orchiopexy. Gray-scale and power Doppler US were performed 24 hours later. We evaluated echogenicity, intratesticular vascular flow, and testis size. Echogenicity and intratesticular vascular flow were quantitatively analyzed by using a visual scale and computer-based analysis. After US, detorsion was performed in torsed testes, and 6 days after detorsion testes were excised to determine testicular viability, which was determined using gross and microscopic findings. US findings before detorsion were correlated with testicular viability. RESULTS: At US performed 24 hours after testicular torsion, all viable testes (n = 7) were homogeneous and isoechoic versus contralateral testes. In nonviable testes (n = 11), lower (82%) and heterogeneous (73%) echogenicities were seen on gray-scale US. Intratesticular vascular flow was preserved in 86% of viable testes. In nonviable testes, no intratesticular vascularity was observed in 82%, and intermittent, peripheral blood flow was detected in the remaining 18%. Intratesticular focal lesions were observed in 45% of nonviable testis. Quantitative analysis showed a statistically significant difference between viable and nonviable testes in terms of testicular echogenicity and intratesticular vascular flow. CONCLUSION: Preoperative US including power Doppler examination can predict testicular viability in testicular torsion. Echogenicity of nonviable testes was found to be hypoechoic and inhomogeneous. Power Doppler examination showed no or intermittent peripheral blood flow in nonviable testes.     

Testicular ischemia: color Doppler sonographic findings in five patients

We studied the findings on color Doppler sonography in five men with testicular ischemia (three with acute testicular torsion and two with testicular infarcts after herniorrhaphies). In all five cases, no intratesticular blood flow was identified on the symptomatic side, while normal blood flow was evident on the opposite side. In the three cases of acute torsion, no gray scale sonographic abnormalities were seen, and in the two cases of postoperative infarction, the abnormalities were nonspecific. These findings suggest that color Doppler sonography can be used to show decreased blood flow in cases of acute testicular ischemia and that it may have a role in evaluating patients with suspected testicular torsion.     

Intrauterine spermatic cord torsion in the newborn: sonographic and pathologic correlation

In five newborn patients with spermatic cord torsion, sonography demonstrated an enlarged and globular testis, hydrocele, and skin thickening. In four of these patients the testicular parenchyma was heterogeneous. Peripheral hypoechoic areas were seen in two of the four patients; the other two had a central hypoechoic region and a peripheral echogenic rim. The testis in the fifth patient was diffusely hyperechoic. Duplex Doppler sonography performed in two patients failed to demonstrate any signal in the spermatic cord in either the abnormal or contralateral hemiscrotum. Scintigraphic findings were positive for testicular torsion in two patients and equivocal in three patients. Surgery was performed 2-12 days after sonography and established the diagnosis of spermatic cord torsion. Pathologic examination demonstrated hemorrhagic infarction of the entire testis as well as scattered calcifications. The authors conclude that a solid globular testicular mass seen during the neonatal period is suggestive of intrauterine spermatic cord torsion.     

Color Doppler ultrasound of the normal testis

Color Doppler ultrasound with point spectral analysis was performed on 30 testes of 15 asymptomatic volunteers. Intratesticular arteries and testicular capsular arteries were imaged in all 30 cases. Waveforms from these vessels were similar and consistently showed a low-impedance pattern with high levels of diastolic flow. This reflects the low vascular resistance of the testis. Supratesticular arteries were also identified in all 30 cases. In addition to the low-impedance-type waveforms from the testicular artery, waveforms obtained in the supratesticular region also originated from the deferential and/or cremasteric arteries. This resulted in some waveforms with high-impedance patterns, reflecting the high vascular resistance of the epididymis and peritesticular tissues. We believe that color Doppler ultrasound is capable of reliably showing the normal testicular arterial anatomy by imaging intraarterial blood flow. Knowledge of the normal color Doppler appearance and waveform characteristics of the testicular artery should aid in diagnosing scrotal conditions that alter blood flow.     

睾丸扭转35例临床分析

目的探讨睾丸扭转的诊治方法。方法回顾性分析35例睾丸扭转病例的临床资料。患者年龄14～29岁,发病至确诊时间7h～45d。入院前误诊为急性睾丸附睾炎抗炎治疗23例,误诊时间3～45d,误诊为急性阑尾炎行阑尾切除术1例。结果所有患者均行彩色多普勒超声检查,33例确诊。4例试行手法复位均失败。手术探查示精索鞘膜内型扭转34例,鞘膜外形扭转1例;扭转度数360°～720°。2例行患睾复位和固定术,其余患者均切除患睾。所有患者同时行健侧睾丸固定术。结论对于非外伤性阴囊急症,尤其对青壮年患者,临床医生要考虑到睾丸扭转的可能,有条件者应立刻行CDFI等辅助检查以帮助诊断和鉴别,高度怀疑睾丸扭转者应早期果断行手术探查以最大限度地提高睾丸的挽救率。     

Continuous arterial spin-labeling perfusion magnetic resonance imaging of the human testis

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine if continuous arterial spin-labeling perfusion magnetic resonance imaging could be used to detect testicular perfusion in human subjects. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Continuous arterial spin-labeling magnetic resonance perfusion imaging was performed in seven normal male volunteers and in one patient with a painful scrotum following vasectomy. RESULTS: Normal testicular blood flow was demonstrated in 14 of 14 normal testes in seven volunteers, as well as in two normally perfused testes in the post-vasectomy patient. A change in the steady state magnetization was observed in all of the normally perfused testes of the seven volunteers. CONCLUSION: It is possible to detect blood flow to the normally perfused testes using noninvasive spin-labeling perfusion magnetic resonance imaging. This modality could potentially, in future investigations, be used to image patients with suspected testicular torsion and resultant testicular ischemia.     

彩色多普勒超声在睾丸扭转诊断中的作用

目的探讨彩色多普勒超声诊断睾丸扭转的临床意义。方法回顾分析15例经手术病理证实的睾丸扭转患者的术前彩色多普勒超声表现,并与手术病理对比分析。结果15例患者中,13例的彩色多普勒超声显示血流消失或明显减少提示睾丸扭转,有2例初次超声检查误诊,1例误诊为睾丸炎,另1例误诊为正常。后经复查超声,诊断为睾丸扭转。结论彩色多普勒超声能准确地显示睾丸内血供情况,判断睾丸缺血的不同阶段,因而它是诊断睾丸扭转首选的、可靠的检查方法。     

Prevalence and significance of heterogeneous testes revealed on sonography: ex vivo sonographic-pathologic correlation

OBJECTIVE: Heterogeneous or mottled testes in middle-aged or elderly men are often encountered on sonography. To determine the prevalence, cause, and significance of this finding, we examined 50 testes (25 pairs) from autopsy specimens with sonography and gross and microscopic pathology. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Testicles were obtained at autopsy from a series of 25 male cadavers (age range, 16-80 years; mean, 62 years). Eight subjects had a history of cancer. Ex vivo sonography was performed and two board-certified radiologists graded the testis by consensus as normal, heterogeneous, or "other abnormality" (cyst, dilated rete, echogenic focus, or halo). Microscopic pathology was obtained in all abnormal (sonographic or gross pathologic) testes. The severity of tubular sclerosis (atrophy) was graded on a scale of 0-3+ by a uropathologist. RESULTS; No testicular tumors were detected. Sonography revealed normal testes in 33 specimens, heterogeneous in seven specimens, and other in 10 specimens (one cyst, two dilated rete, three halos, and seven echogenic foci). Histology revealed that all seven cases of mottled or heterogeneous testis corresponded to extensive (grades 2 and 3) regions of tubular sclerosis (atrophy). A new sonographic finding of the "halo" was attributable to a thickened, adherent tunica albuginea. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of heterogeneous testes in this elderly population was 14% and represented seminiferous tubule atrophy and sclerosis. The prevalence of clinically occult testicular cancer or metastases in this autopsy subject group was nil. Older patients with a mottled or heterogeneous testis, normal color Doppler flow, and no palpable abnormality probably do not need sonographic follow-up.     

Prenatal testicular torsion: sonographic appearance in the newborn infant

The prenatal diagnosis of spermatic cord torsion is often really difficult and the diagnosis is usually retrospective. Herein, we report a case of a male newborn baby who presented at delivery with an enlarged, swollen and tender scrotum. US showed an enlarged right testis, with dishomogeneous texture, fluid collection between the testis and the tunica vaginalis and large hydrocele. Differential diagnosis included hydrocele complicated by infection or hemorrhage, testicular tumor or postnatal testicular torsion. Color and power Doppler did not reveal any flow signal, and the diagnosis of antenatal torsion with initial necrosis was made. The role of color Doppler US is emphasized in directing the patient to emergency surgical exploration, when testicular salvage may be possible. Delayed surgical treatment can be proposed, when the diagnosis of antenatal torsion has a high degree of certainty. However, the Doppler examination of a newborn baby's testis is a very difficult challenge even for an experienced radiologist. Electronic Publication     

Color-Doppler echography of the testis. Study technique and vascular anatomy]

Color-Doppler sonography has recently made it possible to image scrotal vascularity non-invasively. This study was undertaken to determine the normal color-Doppler appearance and distribution of scrotal vessels and to define the technical principles of the examination. Color-Doppler imaging was effective in detecting both funicolar and testicular vessels. Among these, capsular (25/25), trans-testicular (10/25), centripetal and recurrent (25/25) arteries were easily identified. Waveforms analysis allowed to differentiate veins from arteries within testis and to distinguish (8/10) supratesticular (high impedance pattern with absent diastolic flow) from intratesticular arteries (low impedance pattern with high levels of diastolic flow). The optimal color depiction of scrotal vascularity needed the appropriate selection of several imaging parameters to increase detection of low-velocity, low-volume flows within the small testicular vessels. Such parameters included: PRF (ranging 1500 to 600 Hz), wall filters (ranging 25 to 50 Hz), color gain (maximized for optimal sensitivity while avoiding excessive color noise), color vs. echo priority (ranging 70 to 90%) and color persistence (adjusted to high values). In conclusion, color-Doppler imaging is capable of reliably showing the normal anatomy of testicular vessels. It could make a reliable substitute for scintigraphy and continuous wave Doppler in diagnosing scrotal conditions that alter blood flow.     

Does color Doppler sonography improve the clinical assessment of patients with acute scrotum?

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES: Our experience concerning the use of color Doppler sonography (CDS) in the differential diagnosis of acute scrotum is reported. MATERIAL AND METHODS: From July 2000 to July 2005, 155 patients (median 17.2 years) were admitted with a diagnosis of acute scrotum (unilateral in 150 cases, bilateral in 5). Along with a careful anamnesis and the physical exam, all patients underwent a CDS study of the scrotal content using a sonograph GE Logiq 500 with a multifrequency (7.5-10 MHz) linear probe Small Part. The following CDS parameters were evaluated: intensity of the color-power signal on the testicular parenchyma and on the epididymis; systolic peak velocity (SPV) and telediastolic velocity (TDV) in correspondence of the gonadal hilum. Ultrasound and flowmetry parameters registered on the painful testis were compared with those registered on the healthy controlateral testis. The reduction/absence versus the increase of color-power signal in the parenchyma and the reduction/absence versus the increase of SPV and TDV in the centripetal intratesticular arteries were considered presumptive of testicular torsion versus orchiepididymitis. RESULTS: The results only refer to the 150 patients (300 testis) with acute monolateral scrotum. The clinical picture and the physical exam suggested a torsion of the spermatic cord in 40 cases, a spontaneous de-torsion in 5, an orchiepididymitis in 80, a blunt scrotal trauma in 15, a bulky epididymal cyst or a hydrocele in 4 and a testicular pain of unknown etiology in the remaining 6 cases. Standard US was pathological in 95 patients (63.3%); CDS was pathologic in 70 patients and in 42 of them suggested a testicular torsion. Fifty-three patients underwent surgical exploration: among 42 patients with a presumptive diagnosis of testicular torsion, the diagnosis was confirmed in 22 cases, no anomaly was found in 16 cases and in 4 patients a torsion of testicular appendix was found. The rupture of the tunica albuginea was present in six out of seven patients submitted to surgical exploration for previous blunt trauma and the sonographic diagnosis of hematocele was documented in all cases. The single false-negative diagnosis of testicular torsion in CDS occurred in an 18-month-old child. In presence of funicular torsion, the sensitivity and specificity of physical exam and CDS were 100% versus 95.7% and 86.5% versus 85.3%, respectively; sensitivity and specificity of SPV, TDV and color-Doppler signal on the testis were 100% and 94.8% versus 100% and 90.1% versus 95.7% and 90.8%. In the pre-operative assessment of scrotal trauma, the B-mode US showed a sensitivity and specificity of 100% and 90%, respectively; the color Doppler analysis has not supplied with additional elements for planning a surgical exploration. In presence of orchiepididymitis, the sensitivity and specificity of the physical exam in association to CDS was equal to 100%. In all patients with torsion of the testicular appendix, physical exam and CDS parameters were within normal limits. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: In our experience CDS is an indispensable imaging modality for the clinical assessment of patients with acute scrotum; however, the informations it can afford are operator-dependent and have to be supported by the history and physical exam of the patient. CDS findings constitute probably an important medico-legal support when the necessity of surgical exploration is excluded; anyway, in presence of a clinical suspicion of testicular torsion, even with an apparently normal CDS, the surgical exploration is recommended.     

Budd-Chiari syndrome: detection with color Doppler sonography.

The value of color Doppler sonography in evaluating newly diagnosed Budd-Chiari syndrome in five patients was studied. Hepatic venous findings included absence of vessels (one patient), flow reversal (two patients), narrowing (four patients), and tortuosity (three patients). Detected collaterals included hepatic venous to hepatic venous (four patients), hepatic venous to subcapsular systemic venous (two patients), and portosystemic (three patients). Hepatic venous spectral Doppler waveforms were flat and essentially aphasic in four patients, indicative of distal hepatic venous compression. The inferior vena cava was markedly compressed in two patients and slightly compressed in one. Color Doppler sonography allowed more reliable and confident identification of irregular, compressed, or otherwise abnormal hepatic veins than did conventional sonography. Color Doppler sonography also showed collateral vessels that were undetected with conventional sonography or other imaging techniques. Our results suggest that color Doppler sonography may be a valuable tool in the initial diagnosis and evaluation of suspected Budd-Chiari syndrome.     

Testicular torsion revisited

Ultrasound is routinely used for the assessment and diagnosis of testicular torsion. It has proven to be a reliable and necessary diagnostic tool for the urologist. Problems, however, can arise in the form of misdiagnosis when the basic pathophysiology and clinical presentation of testicular torsion are not clearly understood. In this pictorial review, we present the spectrum of the appearance of testes with testicular torsion. This includes both complete and incomplete torsion. The critical use of Doppler and the interpretation of the Doppler findings will be presented. Other abnormalities that can be potentially confused with testicular torsion, including epididymitis and orchitis, will be shown. An approach to assessing the testis that stresses the critical role of both Doppler examination and an understanding of the clinical presentation will be presented. In particular, in incomplete torsion, a Doppler examination will still demonstrate flow to the testis, potentially leading to a missed diagnosis if the clinical presentation is not considered. Examples of normal and abnormal anatomy will be presented.     

Scrotal sonography in infants and children

In this review we will attempt to summarize the use of scrotal sonography in infants and children. The material is gathered from the literature and from our own experience of 197 sonograms performed on 175 pediatric patients. Included will be information on testicular development and descent, normal sonographic anatomy, classification of scrotal disease, and the final diagnoses of the sonograms. Scrotal sonography has proven useful in evaluating undescended testes in the inguinal canal and just inside the inguinal ring. It is of limited value when the testes are in the abdomen. Sonography can often distinguish the various causes of nonpainful scrotal masses such as tumors, hydrocele, and meconium peritonitis. Sonography is highly accurate in distinguishing normal from abnormal scrotal contents and in separating testicular from extratesticular masses. However, sonography does have limitations in distinguishing benign from malignant neoplasms or from some inflammatory lesions.

Sonography can be successfully used in the differential diagnosis of the painful scrotum especially with color flow Doppler. Inflammatory diseases that often involve the epididymis can be distinguished from torsion. Torsion of the appendages has been diagnosed.

In cases of scrotal trauma, management decisions are often based on the sonographic findings. Conditions that require surgical management such as testicular rupture or large testicular hematomas can be recognized. Information is included on a variety of miscellaneous conditions such as hydrocele, varicocele, and ambiguous genitalia in which sonography has proven valuable.