Menstrual cycle and food cravings in young college women

The effect of the menstrual cycle on food cravings was examined in a population of 83 young college women during a 6-week longitudinal study. Food cravings and menstrual symptoms were evaluated by measuring subject responses in weekly questionnaires ("craving sheets"). The women were not told that the central objective of the study was to examine the effects of the menstrual cycle on food cravings. The menstrual cycle was divided into four stages: menstrual flow; the first half of the cycle, excluding menstrual flow; the second half of the cycle, excluding the premenstrual phase; and 1 week premenstrual. Cravings for 32 foods were examined on a weekly basis under controlled environmental conditions. Foods tested were categorized according to common characteristics. The women exhibited a greater preference for chocolate foods during menstrual flow than during the other menstrual stages. Cravings for high-sugar foods, high-starch foods, or lower carbohydrate foods were not significantly affected by the stage of the menstrual cycle.     

High-calorie food-cues impair working memory performance in high and low food cravers

The experience of food craving can lead to cognitive impairments. Experimentally induced chocolate craving exhausts cognitive resources and, therefore, impacts working memory, particularly in trait chocolate cravers. In the current study, we investigated the effects of exposure to food-cues on working memory task performance in a group with frequent and intense (high cravers, n=28) and less pronounced food cravings (low cravers, n=28). Participants performed an n-back task that contained either pictures of high-calorie sweets, high-calorie savory foods, or neutral objects. Current subjective food craving was assessed before and after the task. All participants showed slower reaction times and made more omission errors in response to food-cues, particularly savory foods. There were no differences in task performance between groups. State cravings did not differ between groups before the task, but increased more in high cravers compared to low cravers during the task. Results support findings about food cravings impairing visuo-spatial working memory performance independent of trait cravings. They further show that this influence is not restricted to chocolate, but also applies to high-calorie savory foods. Limiting working memory capacity may be especially crucial in persons who are more prone to high-calorie food-cues and experience such cravings habitually.     

Sugar and fat: cravings and aversions

Food cravings are extremely common, particularly among women. Cravings are frequently reported for specific types of foods, including chocolate and foods high in both sugar and fat. Cravings for specific macronutrients, such as carbohydrate, have been postulated to result from a physiological need to alter neurotransmitters in such states as eating disorders, affective disorders or obesity. However, studies of such cravings are often confounded by differing sensory properties of high and low carbohydrate foods. There is some evidence that sweet, high fat foods are preferred by women with binge-eating disorders and that those preferences are mediated by the endogenous opioid system. Aversion to fat is seen primarily in women with anorexia nervosa. However, it is possible that changes in fat preference may be achieved through behavioral or pharmacological approaches. An understanding of food cravings and aversions may lead to improved methods for the prevention and treatment of obesity and eating disorders.     

The relationship between eating-related individual differences and visual attention to foods high in added fat and sugar

ObjectiveAttentional biases for food-related stimuli may be associated separately with obesity, disordered eating, and hunger. We tested an integrative model that simultaneously examines the association of body mass index (BMI), disordered eating and hunger with food-related visual attention to processed foods that differ in added fat/sugar level (e.g., sweets, candies, fried foods) relative to minimally processed foods (e.g., fruits, meats/nuts, vegetables) that are lower in fat/sugar content.MethodsOne-hundred overweight or obese women, ages 18–50, completed a food-related visual search task and measures associated with eating behavior. Height and weight were measured.ResultsHigher levels of hunger significantly predicted increased vigilance for sweets and candy and increased vigilance for fried foods at a trend level. Elevated hunger was associated significantly with decreased dwell time on fried foods and, at a trend level, with decreased dwell time on sweets. Higher BMIs emerged as a significant predictor of decreased vigilance for fried foods, but BMI was not related to dwell time. Disordered eating was unrelated to vigilance for or dwell time on unhealthy food types.ConclusionsThis pattern of findings suggests that low-level attentional biases may contribute to difficulties making healthier food choices in the current food environment and may point toward useful strategies to reduce excess food consumption.     

The effect of deprivation on food cravings and eating behavior in restrained and unrestrained eaters

OBJECTIVE: The relation between being deprived of a food and intake and craving for that food was investigated in restrained and unrestrained eaters. METHOD: For 1 week, 103 female undergraduate students were assigned to be chocolate deprived, vanilla deprived, or nondeprived. Only chocolate deprivation was expected to elicit cravings, as chocolate is not easily substituted, whereas vanilla is. RESULTS: The main effect of chocolate deprivation on consumption was qualified by an interaction with restraint. Chocolate-deprived restrained eaters consumed more chocolate food than did any other group. Restrained eaters experienced more food cravings than did unrestrained eaters and were more likely to eat the craved food. Moreover, restrained eaters deprived of chocolate spent the least time doing an anagram task before a "taste-rating task" in which they expected that chocolate foods might be available. CONCLUSION: Converging measures of craving indicate that deprivation causes craving and overeating, but primarily in restrained eaters.     

The effect of food intake on mood

Literature consistently demonstrates that individuals experiencing emotional distress, especially depression, report a craving and preference for sweet carbohydrate/fat rich foods. This relationship exists in individuals experiencing fall/winter seasonal affective disorder, premenstrual syndrome, and some obse individuals. The cravings and preference for these foods occur only during the fall and winter in indivuduals with seasonal affective disorder and in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle in individuals with premenstrual disorder which is the time when symptoms of depression are experienced. Additionally, unipolar depressed individuals increase their preference for sweet carbohydrate/fat rich foods as they become depressed. They also increase their consumption of carbohydrates from sucrose. Several studies indicate that sweet carbohydrate/fat rich foods are consumed because of the resulting mood enhancement. However, other studies have revealed that elimination of intake of added sucrose and/or caffeine from the diet of unipolar depressed individuals results in an amelioration of depression that is maintained as long as the substance they are sensitive to, added sucrose or caffeine, is not consumed. The cravings and preference which some depressed individuals have for sweet carbohydrate/fat rich foods seems to result from the enhancement in mood following consumption. Paradoxically, however, a better long-term strategy for mood enhancement may be to totally eliminate added sucrose and caffeine from the diet of depressed individuals.     

Eating disorder pathology and menstrual cycle fluctuations in eating variables in oral contraceptive users and non-users

Food intake and food cravings fluctuate across the menstrual cycle in women who are not using oral contraceptives (OCs), however less is known about cyclical variations in eating variables in women using OCs. Furthermore, few studies have examined the relationship between eating disorder pathology and menstrual cycle fluctuations in eating behaviors. In the present study, we examined self-report, retrospective ratings of food cravings intensity, hunger level, and amount eaten across the menstrual cycle in 67 non-OC users and across exogenous hormone regimens in 81 OC users. We also investigated the relationship between eating disorder pathology and cyclical fluctuations in eating variables. The results indicated that OC users and non-OC users report similar levels of food cravings and amount eaten across cycle phases, with food cravings and reported amount eaten elevated during the week prior to menses/hormone withdrawal bleeding and during the week of menses/hormone withdrawal bleeding. However, OC users reported elevated hunger during both the week prior to hormone withdrawal bleeding and during hormone withdrawal bleeding, whereas non-OC users reported an elevation in hunger level only during the week prior to menses. Fear of fatness and other eating disorder pathology variables were significantly associated with increases in food cravings, hunger level and reported amount eaten the week prior to menses in non-OC users, but not in OC users. These findings suggest that future studies should examine the potential role of menstrual cycle-related fluctuations in eating variables on the development of eating disorders.     

Cravings and aversions of pregnant adolescents.

Adolescents from 31 eastern Tennessee counties were interviewed during the third trimester of pregnancy (n = 97) and at 1-year postpartum (n = 64) to assess cravings and aversions, beliefs about dietary cravings, and how these factors influence dietary intake. Characteristics of cravings and aversions were assessed using a semistructured interview. Beliefs about cravings during pregnancy were measured with a 13-item Likert-type scale (alpha = 0.79). Two 24-hour recalls and 2 days' food records provided dietary data. Most adolescents (86%) reported cravings during pregnancy. They most frequently reported cravings for sweets, especially chocolate; fruits and fruit juices; fast foods; pickles; ice cream; and pizza. Many participants (66%) experienced aversions during pregnancy toward previously liked foods. The most common aversions were to meats, eggs, and pizza. Fewer cravings and aversions were noted during the first year postpartum. No significant relationship existed between craving and aversions and belief scores. Adolescents craving sweets during pregnancy consumed more sugar and energy than those who did not crave sweets. Cravings generally resulted in increased intake, and aversions led to decreased food consumption. On the basis of these results, we suggest that nutritional assessment of pregnant adolescents include questions about cravings and aversions.     

Manipulating fat content of familiar foods at test-meals does not affect intake and liking of these foods among children

We investigated effects of manipulating fat content of familiar foods at two test-meals in 74, 4–6-year-old children. Liking, energy intake, and weight-based food intake were assessed for a meal consisting of macaroni and cheese, pudding, chocolate milk and regular milk in high-fat and low-fat versions. Liking ratings and consumption by weight did not differ between versions, but energy intake was 59% greater with the high-fat version. We conclude that manipulating fat content had little effect on liking and weight-based food intake, but markedly influenced overall energy intake, and thus might provide a means of lowering children's energy consumption.     

All cravings are not created equal. Correlates of menstrual versus non-cyclic chocolate craving

Chocolate cravings occur regularly in about 45% of American women. Approximately half of these women link their craving temporally to the menstrual cycle, with a significant proportion of cravings reportedly peaking around ovulation or the onset of menstruation. This study aimed to elucidate the correlates of menstrual craving versus non-cyclic craving. Questionnaires assessing the relationships between craving, eating behaviors, attitudes towards weight and shape, and general pathology were completed by 97 women. Menstrual craving was reported by 28.9% (n = 28) and was associated with potentially maladaptive weight- and eating-related behaviors and attitudes, including higher body mass index, elevated dietary restraint, less flexible control over intake, and more guilt associated with the consumption of chocolate. Findings point to potential mechanisms involved in the etiology of menstrual cravings, such as the view of craving as a response to abstinence from high-calorie foods in an attempt to manage cyclically occurring weight fluctuations.     

Negative affect and cue-induced overeating in non-eating disordered obesity

The recent separation of non-eating disordered obesity into a subtype that is high in negative affect and a subtype that is low in negative affect led to the hypothesis that the two subtypes would show opposite eating responses to typical triggers of overeating. Overweight/obese and normal weight participants, clustered into high and low negative affect subtypes, took part in an experiment using a control condition and two typically disinhibiting manipulations: negative mood induction and tasty food exposure. In accordance with the hypothesis, the negative mood induction and the food exposure elicited overeating in the overweight/obese high negative affect subtype. The overweight/obese low negative affect subtype did not eat more after negative mood induction and food exposure than without a trigger for overeating. Likewise, the normal weight participants did not show differential responses to the three manipulations. The increased vulnerability to overeating in this non-eating disordered overweight/obese subtype that is characterized by increased negative affect shows that individual differences play a crucial role in the way overweight/obese people handle temptations of the current environment. Being characterized by high negative affect makes it more difficult for the overweight/obese to resist temptations. Future studies into non-eating disordered obesity should consider the existence of these two subtypes.     

Menstrual cycle and voluntary food intake in young Chinese women.

The effect of menstrual cycle phase on energy and macronutrients intakes was assessed in 20 university students (21.2+/-1.3 years) all of whom experienced ovulatory cycle as documented by a surge in urinary luteinizing hormone. Three-day food intake records, which consisted of one weekend day, were kept in both mid-follicular and mid-luteal phases. Mean daily energy intake was higher (p=0.02) in the luteal phase (6978+/-1847 kJ) than in the follicular phase (6095+/-1174 kJ). Intakes of carbohydrate and fat were also significantly elevated (by 15 and 21%, respectively) in the luteal phase. The menstrual phase effect on energy intake was attributed to the substantially higher intakes from Thursday through Sunday in the luteal phase. The proportion of energy from the three macronutrients was not affected by menstrual phase nor day of the week.     

Menstrual cycle and voluntary food intake

The relationship of food intake and the human menstrual cycle has not been well quantified. In this study, voluntary energy and sucrose intake of seven women, aged 24-43 y, were evaluated by the weighed-intake method over one entire menstrual cycle. Portable tape recorders facilitated the recording of food intake. Although daily fluctuations of energy intake were large, analysis of variance showed intake during the luteal phase to be significantly greater than during the periovulatory and follicular phases (p less than 0.05). From 95% simultaneous (Bonferoni) confidence intervals, the estimate of difference was 283 kcal greater during the luteal phase than the periovulatory phase; the estimate of difference was 214 kcal greater during the luteal phase than during the follicular phase. No significant differences in energy intake were found among the menstrual, follicular, and periovulatory phases. No significant relationship was found between sucrose intake and the menstrual cycle.     

Short-term effects of a progestational contraceptive drug on food intake, resting energy expenditure, and body weight in young women

BACKGROUND: Studies showed that hormonal fluctuations that occur over the human menstrual cycle affect energy intake and expenditure. However, little is known about the possible effects on body weight regulation that may arise when these cyclic changes are suppressed with hormonal contraceptives. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine how a progestational contraceptive drug (depot medroxyprogesterone acetate) affects food intake, resting energy expenditure (REE), and body weight in young women. DESIGN: Twenty normal-weight women were tested in a single-blind, placebo-controlled experiment. Body weight, REE, and 3-d food intake (food provided) were measured in the follicular and luteal phases of 2 menstrual cycles before a single injection of depot medroxyprogesterone or saline solution was administered. Measurements were also taken 4 times after injection: in the luteal and follicular phases of 2 cycles in the placebo group and 2 wk apart (to mimic timing of the menstrual phases) in the drug group. RESULTS: Before injection, the phase of the menstrual cycle affected both energy intake and REE. The study participants consumed more energy (4.3%; P = 0.02) and expended more energy at rest (4.3%; P = 0.0002) in the luteal phase than in the follicular phase. Comparison of pre- and postinjection means showed that treatment with the contraceptive drug had no significant effects on energy intake, REE, or body weight. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that, although phases of the menstrual cycle affected energy intake and REE, depot medroxyprogesterone acetate did not alter energy intake or expenditure or cause weight gain in young women.     

Characteristics of self-selected portion size in young adults

OBJECTIVE: Individuals' perceptions of portion size have not been examined with respect to body mass index (BMI; calculated as kg/m(2)), food form, food macronutrient, or food-energy density. The primary objective of this investigation was to evaluate the characteristics surrounding college students' perception of typical portions of real food items. DESIGN: This study was designed as a quasi-experiment with independent repeated measures of food form (amorphous, solid, liquid), food macronutrient content (low carbohydrate, high carbohydrate, low fat, high fat), and food-energy density (low, high), as well as one independent subject variable of sex (male, female). The main dependent measure was self-selected portion size representing what each participant felt was their typical portion of 15 food/beverage items. In addition, BMI was treated as a continuous predictor variable in regressions for portion-size estimation. RESULTS: Participants (n=51) chose substantially larger portion sizes as compared to reference portion sizes in 10 of the 15 food/beverage items. When accounting for intervening variables, BMI positively predicted self-selected portion size for six of 15 food/beverage items (R(2)=0.29 to 0.38). In addition, participants chose significantly larger portion sizes for high-carbohydrate foods when compared to high-fat foods (191.65 vs 145.40 g; P=0.004). CONCLUSIONS: A strong relationship between BMI and large portion sizes for high-energy-density foods, snacks, and high-carbohydrate foods was found. In addition, participants selected much smaller portion sizes for high-fat foods items relative to high-carbohydrate foods.     

The Macronutrient Content of Sodium-Modified Foods Is Unchanged Compared with Regular Counterparts: An Evaluation of Select Categories of Packaged Foods in the United States, 2018

BackgroundLowering excess sodium in packaged foods is part of a public health strategy to reduce cardiovascular disease risk. Sales of foods with labeled sodium claims increased during the past decade. Yet, it is unclear whether sugars or fats were added during the reformulation of foods that might counter the benefits of sodium reduction.ObjectiveIt was hypothesized that the nutrient content of packaged foods with lower sodium label claims (ie, sodium-modified) would differ from their regular (ie, unmodified) counterparts.DesignThis cross-sectional study compared label data of 153 sodium-modified foods and 141 regular, matched counterparts within four food categories: soups, processed meats, vegetables, and savory snacks. Foods were identified by searching manufacturer websites of the top-10 brands in each category. Sodium, calories, total carbohydrate, sugar, protein, total fat, saturated fat, and potassium (when reported) were compared by labeled serving and per 100 g food.ResultsThe average amount in milligrams of sodium per serving in regular foods ranged from 162 mg for savory snacks to 782 mg for soups. Compared with regular foods, the matched lower sodium foods had significantly less sodium per serving (–95 to –387 mg) and per 100 g (–184 to –462 mg) (P<0.01 for all comparisons), except for soups per 100 g (P = 0.166), and were similar to their regular counterparts in calories, total carbohydrate, sugar, protein, total fat, and saturated fat (P>0.05 for all comparisons). Of the soups that reported potassium on the label, potassium was 244 mg/serving (P=0.004) and 139 mg/100 g (P=0.002) higher among matched lower sodium soups.ConclusionsThe similarity in macronutrient contents on the labels for sodium-modified foods and their regular counterparts suggests that reformulation did not include the addition of significant amounts of sugars, fats, or other macronutrients among major food brands in the selected categories. Potassium content and additional food categories deserve further investigation.     

Food “Cravings” and the Acute Effects of Alprazolam on Food Intake in Women with Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder

Women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMS) report negative mood premenstrually, and increased food cravings and food intake. Although the benzodiazepine alprazolam has been used to treat PMS, alprazolam has been shown to increase food intake. The present study investigated the acute effects of alprazolam (0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 mg) on food intake in 19 women with PMS. Each dose was tested once during the premenstrual phase and again during the postmenstrual phase. Each session, before drug administration, participants completed a Food Desirability Questionnaire and selected lunch, which was consumed 3.5 h after drug administration. Desire for foods containing fat were significantly increased premenstrually compared to postmenstrually, while desires for carbohydrate (CHO) alone and beverages did not change as a function of menstrual cycle phase. Cognitive Restraint scores predicted the amount of food consumed, i. e. restrained eaters consumed less food at lunch. Alprazolam significantly increased food intake, specifically fat, premenstrually compared to postmenstrually. Restrained eaters consumed 26% more calories premenstrually following 0.75 mg alprazolam relative to placebo, whereas unrestrained eaters consumed 9% more calories. Thus, women with PMS, particularly restrained eaters, are more sensitive to the food-intake increasing effects of alprazolam premenstrually.     

Food cravings,food intake,and weight status in a community-based sample

The aims of this study were to 1) determine the relationships between BMI and the frequency of food cravings for different categories of foods, 2) examine the associations between cravings for different types of foods and self-reported, habitual intake of these foods, and 3) assess how these relationships differ by BMI. Six hundred and forty-six participants (55.7% female; 66.4% White; mean age 29.5 ± 9.1 years; mean BMI 27.3 ± 5.5 kg/m²) completed a comprehensive assessment battery including the Food Craving Inventory (FCI) and a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). There was a significant positive relationship between BMI and food cravings. There were significant positive associations of cravings for sweets, high fats, carbohydrates/starches, and fast-food fats on respective intake of these types of foods; however, there were no significant interactions between food cravings and BMI on the respective type of food intake. This study indicates significant positive relationships between specific categories of food cravings and habitual intake of those foods.     

Cocoa powder increases postprandial insulinemia in lean young adults

We hypothesized that chocolate products elicit higher insulin responses than matched products with alternate flavoring. To test this, we used a within-subject, repeated-measures comparison of six pairs of foods, one flavored with chocolate (cocoa powder) and the other not. Healthy subjects (n = 10, 4 men, 6 women) tested each pair of foods. Postprandial glucose and insulin levels were determined at intervals over 2 h using standardized glycemic index (GI) methodology. The product categories were chocolate bars, cakes, breakfast cereals, ice creams, flavored milks and puddings. Although the GI did not differ within each pair, the insulin index (II) of the chocolate product was always higher, by a mean of 28%, than the alternate flavored product (P < 0.001). The greatest difference occurred within the flavored milk category in which the chocolate version elicited 45% greater insulinemia than the strawberry flavored milk (P = 0.021). Macronutrient composition (fat, protein, sugar, fiber or energy density) accounted for nearly all of the variation in GI among the foods, but did not explain differences in insulinemia. The presence of cocoa powder in foods leads to greater postprandial insulin secretion than alternate flavorings. Specific insulinogenic amino acids or greater cephalic phase insulin release may explain the findings.