Dependences of mucosal dose on photon beams in head-and-neck intensity-modulated radiation therapy: a Monte Carlo study

Dependences of mucosal dose in the oral or nasal cavity on the beam energy, beam angle, multibeam configuration, and mucosal thickness were studied for small photon fields using Monte Carlo simulations (EGSnrc-based code), which were validated by measurements. Cylindrical mucosa phantoms (mucosal thickness = 1, 2, and 3 mm) with and without the bone and air inhomogeneities were irradiated by the 6- and 18-MV photon beams (field size = 1 × 1 cm²) with gantry angles equal to 0°, 90°, and 180°, and multibeam configurations using 2, 4, and 8 photon beams in different orientations around the phantom. Doses along the central beam axis in the mucosal tissue were calculated. The mucosal surface doses were found to decrease slightly (1% for the 6-MV photon beam and 3% for the 18-MV beam) with an increase of mucosal thickness from 1–3 mm, when the beam angle is 0°. The variation of mucosal surface dose with its thickness became insignificant when the beam angle was changed to 180°, but the dose at the bone-mucosa interface was found to increase (28% for the 6-MV photon beam and 20% for the 18-MV beam) with the mucosal thickness. For different multibeam configurations, the dependence of mucosal dose on its thickness became insignificant when the number of photon beams around the mucosal tissue was increased. The mucosal dose with bone was varied with the beam energy, beam angle, multibeam configuration and mucosal thickness for a small segmental photon field. These dosimetric variations are important to consider improving the treatment strategy, so the mucosal complications in head-and-neck intensity-modulated radiation therapy can be minimized.     

On bolus for megavoltage photon and electron radiation therapy

Frequently, in radiation therapy one must treat superficial lesions on cancer patients; these are at or adjacent to the skin. Megavoltage photon radiotherapy penetrates through the skin to irradiate deep-seated tumors, with skin-sparing property. Hence, to treat superficial lesions, one must use a layer of scattering material to feign as the skin surface. Although megavoltage electron beams are used for superficial treatments, one occasionally needs to enhance the dose near the surface. Such is the function of a “bolus,” a natural or synthetically developed material that acts as a layer of tissue to provide a more effective treatment to the superficial lesions. Other uses of boluses are to correct for varying surface contours and to add scattering material around the patient's surface. Materials used as bolus vary from simple water to metal and include various mixtures and compounds. Even with the modernization of the technology for external-beam therapy and the emergence of various commercial boluses, the preparation and utilization of a bolus in clinical radiotherapy remains an art. Considering the varying experiences and practices, this paper briefly summarizes available boluses that have been proposed and are employed in clinical radiotherapy. Although this review is not exhaustive, it provides some initial guidance and answers questions that may arise in clinical practice.     

Escalated median dose for pituitary macroadenomas using intensity-modulated radiation therapy.

Three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy (3D CRT) has become an established treatment for pituitary macroadenomas. This study is an investigation into the possible dosimetric advantages of intensity-modulated radiotherapy for such critically located tumors. Three consecutive patients with pituitary macroadenoma previously treated with 3D CRT were replanned with inverse-planned IMRT using Helax-TMS (V.6.0, Helax AB, Uppsala, Sweden. Fusion of computed tomography (CT) with postoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed within the planning system to define the gross tumor volume (GTV), planning target volume (PTV), and normal structures including the optic chiasm. Dose-volume histograms (DVHs) for the 3D CRT plans were then compared with those of the corresponding prospective IMRT plans. Both techniques maintained critical structure doses below tolerance levels while maintaining a minimum dose of 45 Gy to 100% of the PTV. While IMRT plans deliver consistently more heterogeneous dose distributions to the PTV, the median PTV dose is elevated in the IMRT plans compared with the 3D CRT plans. For critically located tumors like these pituitary macroadenomas, IMRT allows escalation of the median dose to the tumor without an accompanying loss in critical structure sparing or creating unacceptable cold spots within the PTV.     

High-energy electron and photon therapy to the parotid bed: radiation dose perturbations with a titanium mandibular implant

Adjuvant radiation therapy to the parotid bed is commonly administered following surgical resection using either a pair of angled wedged photon beams or an ipsilateral mixed-beam portal of electrons and photons. The present study seeks to determine the optimal parotid bed treatment technique in the presence of a titanium mandibular implant by investigating perturbations in the dose distribution deep to this implant for a 15-MeV electron beam and a 6-MV photon beam. A titanium mandibular plate was embedded in a tissue-equivalent phantom, and irradiated with 15-MeV electrons, and 6 MV photons. Radiation doses behind the plate were measured with both thermoluminescent dosimeters and radiographic film. With 15-MeV electrons, there is a clinically significant decrease in the dose beyond the titanium plate, which is most important at 5-mm and 10-mm depths (18-27%). With 6-MV photons the dose at the deep interface of titanium and tissue is reduced by between 15 and 18%, but rapidly drops to < 5% at a depth of 5 mm. In adjuvant treatment to the parotid bed, when the clinical target volume includes tissue positioned deep to a titanium implant, significant underdosage occurs with ipsilateral beam arrangements, especially when electrons are used.     

IMRT计划剂量误差与射野特征参数相关性分析

目的 研究调强计划射野特征参数之间的关系,以及射野特征参数对调强计划绝对剂量验证准确性的影响.方法 使用Pinnacle 7.6c治疗计划系统,直接子野优化方法设计43例调强放射治疗计划,移植到固体水模.使用0.13 cc Farmer型标准电离室(IBA Corp),DOSE1剂量仪测量绝对剂量.统计43例调强病例的射野特征参数,分析其相互关系,并统计验证误差,分析射野特征参数与验证结果的相关性.结果 各射野特征描述参数之间存在相互联系(P＜0.05).测量偏差与各射野特征参数均显著相关.子野数大于80个的IMRT计划,剂量偏差值大于3％;子野数小于80,多数计划的剂量偏差值小于3％.子野数大于100个的IMRT计划,一部分计划的剂量偏差值大于4％;子野数小于100个时,剂量偏差值均小于4％.结论 从治疗计划设计角度而言,应在临床可以接受的情况下,尽量减少总射野数和总子野数,总子野数应控制在80个以内,可减少调强放疗计划验证偏差.     

Evaluation of bladder dose in intensity-modulated radiation therapy of the prostate.

Day-to-day variation in bladder and rectal filling affects prostate location and positioning accuracy. Systems using ultrasonic localization or gold seed placement are most often used to help correct for these changes. At some institutions, patients are instructed to empty their rectum and fill their bladders prior to treatment in an attempt to standardize the prostate location, displace small bowel out of the radiation field, and move some of the bladder wall away from the high-dose area. Although instructed to come to treatment with a full bladder, it is presumed that there is variability in bladder filling each day of treatment, depending on the amount of fluids consumed and time to treatment. We have reviewed daily bladder volumes on a subset of 5 prostate patients, all of them prescribed to receive 7560 cGy in 42 fractions, and have evaluated the dosimetric consequences of bladder volume changes from full to two-third or one-third filling. All of these patients' positions were verified daily with ultrasonic localization. Those measurements have been used to help analyze the actual treated bladder volumes for comparison with the treatment plan. We find that, in general, maximum filling only occurred on the initial simulation/image acquisition day and was typically smaller on all the following treatment days. Based on our dose-volume model, we estimate that average bladder daily doses were 8-50% higher than predicted by the initial intensity-modulation radiation therapy (IMRT) plan.     

Surface dose with grids in electron beam radiation therapy.

This investigation attempts to solve the problem of the lack of skin-sparing effect in electron radiation therapy and to increase the tolerance of skin to radiation using the grid technique. Electron grid therapy involves the mounting of a Cerrobend grid in the electron cone. Film dosimetry was employed to measure the relative surface dose and the percentage depth dose profile of electron grid portals. Various grid hole diameters (d = 0.45, 1.0, 1.5 cm) and grid hole spacings (s = 0.4, 0.2 cm) were considered for electron beams from 6 to 14 MeV. Experimental results indicate that the electron grid technique can reduce the relative surface dose in electron radiation therapy. Degradations of the relative surface dose depend on the percentage of open area in the grid portal. A proper grid design allows the surface dose to be reduced and the range of nonhomogeneous doses to be limited to a depth at which the target volume can receive a homogeneous dose. The grid technique can lower the surface dose in electron radiation therapy.     

Optimization of dose distribution by use of lead wedge filters in combined electron and photon therapy

A significantly improved isodose distribution has been reached by the combined application of high-energy photons and electrons, however, there are still problems with respect to the critical organs. It was demonstrated that a considerable progress is possible by the use of lead wedge filters within the frame of this irradiation technique. Recommendations for clinical application are given on the basis of the authors' own practical experiences.     

Traditional and MLC based dose compensator design for patients with hip prostheses undergoing pelvic radiation therapy.

Perturbations in the dose distribution caused by a hip prosthesis when treating pelvic malignancies can result in unacceptable dose inhomogeneities within the target volume. Our results, obtained by in vivo exit dose measurements with diodes, showed a 55% reduction in the dose at the exit dmax of a lateral 15 MV photon beam after passing through a bilateral cobalt-chrome alloy hip prosthesis. Such an inhomogeneous dose distribution may decrease the curability. Solutions such as treatment techniques to avoid the prosthesis are often not the best choice as the dose to the rectum may be unacceptably high. In this work an alternative method of dose compensator is presented. Two types of dose compensators were designed based on a 3-D treatment planning system and CT images of a pelvic phantom containing a hip prosthesis: one was fabricated from a polyethylene-lead slab in the representation of step fringes and placed on a tray in the path of the beam while the other was produced by the use of several fields shaped with a multileaf collimator. The calculation procedures developed by the authors for generating the compensators are described. Results of film measurements performed in a phantom with and without the compensators in place are discussed.     

乳腺癌保留乳房术后瘤床同步X射线和电子线整合补量调强放疗剂量研究

目的 比较乳腺癌保留乳房术后瘤床同步X射线和电子线整合补量调强放疗剂量学特点,探讨不同补量方式对全乳、心脏和同侧肺脏受照剂量的影响.方法 选择10例患者,将银夹所标记的范围外扩10 mm定义为肉眼靶区（GTV）,全乳腺定义为临床靶区（CTV）,根据ADAC Pinnacle^3 6.2和Pinnacle^3 7.0分别制定X射线和电子线瘤床整合补量放疗计划,比较两种计划的剂量学参数.结果 X射线和电子线瘤床补量计划的剂量均匀性和适形性差异均无统计学意义;受照射剂量≥20 Gy的患侧肺脏容积V20（1ung）及受照射剂量≥GTV处方剂量的患侧肺脏容积V处方剂量（lung）-GTV差异无统计学意义,但电子线瘤床补量计划中受照射剂量≥CTV处方剂量的患侧肺脏容积V处方剂量（1ung）-CTV明显高于X射线瘤床补量,差异有统计学意义（P=0.014）;受照剂量≥30 Gy的心脏容积V30（heart）和受照剂量≥CTV处方剂量的心脏容积V处方剂量（heart）-CTV差异均无统计学意义.结论 X射线和电子线瘤床补量计划中的多数剂量学参数差异无统计学意义,但电子线瘤床补量计划中受照射剂量≥CTV处方剂量的患侧肺脏容积明显高于X射线瘤床补量.     

Treatment of the scalp using photon and electron beams

Many problems arise when treating superficial malignancies along the entire scalp. Some techniques will irradiate too much of the underlying brain while others are highly complex and may involve field junction problems. One approach to circumvent such difficulties is to use lateral opposed photon fields and adjoining electron fields as described in this paper. Sufficient dose coverage throughout the entire scalp is achieved, the normal brain tissues receives minimal dosages, the complexities of simulation and treatment are greatly eased, and the ambiguities of doses at field junction regions are diminished.     

Application of intensity-modulated radiation therapy for pediatric malignancies

Novel radiation therapy delivery techniques have moved very slowly in the field of pediatric oncology. Some collaborative groups allow new radiation therapy delivery techniques in their trials. In many instances, the option of using these techniques is not addressed. These newer techniques of radiation delivery have the potential to reduce the probability of the common late effects of radiation and at the same time, potentially improve upon control and survival. The purpose of this study is to show the feasibility of IMRT in pediatric patients. No treatment results or toxicities will be presented. Five patients with a variety of pediatric malignancies received intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) at our institution as part of their disease management. A rigid immobilization device was developed for each patient and a computed tomography (CT) simulation was performed in the treatment position. In 3 of the patients, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans were coregistered with the planning CT to facilitate target and critical structure delineation. In all but 1 patient, coplanar beam arrangements were used in the IMRT planning process. All IMRT plans exhibited a high degree of conformality. Dose homogeneity inside the tumor and rapid dose falloff outside the target volume is characteristic of IMRT plans, which allows for improved normal tissue sparing. Dose distributions were obtained for all plans, as well as dose and volume relationship histograms, to evaluate the fitness of the plans. IMRT is a viable alternative to conventional treatment techniques for pediatric cancer patients. The improved dose distributions coupled with the ease of delivery of the IMRT fields make this technique very attractive, especially in view of the potential to increase local control and possibly improve on survival.     

调强适形放射治疗计划剂量学的验证

目的探讨逆向调强适形放射治疗(IMRT)过程中剂量学验证的方法，保证IMRT治疗计划临床实施的正确性。方法针对实施IMRT病人，使用CMS FOCUS9200三维治疗计划系统设计出5野IMRT治疗计划。利用固体水模板在治疗计划系统中建立三维等效体模。将待验证病人的IMRT计划移置到体模中重新进行优化，计算出体模中感兴趣点或平面上的剂量和剂量分布。将体模移放到加速器治疗床上，调用体模IMRT计划数据对体模进行模拟照射。使用0．23 cc电离室测量出体模中感兴趣点上的吸收剂量；使用RIT 113胶片剂量分析系统测量出体模中感兴趣平面上的剂量分布。然后和计划系统计算的结果相比较，验证绝对剂量和相对剂量。结果绝对剂量和相对剂量的测量结果基本上和计划系统计算的结果相一致。测量的绝对剂量误差在3％以内，相对剂量曲线分布也是比较准确的。结论IMRT计划剂量学验证是临床实施IMRT治疗过程中的可靠保证。     

Effects of gas-filled temporary breast tissue expanders on radiation dose from modulated rotational photon beams

Gas-filled temporary tissue expanders (TTEs), implanted to assist in post mastectomy breast reconstructions, are expected to produce increased dosimetric uncertainty in breast radiotherapy treatments, due to their containing both a substantial metallic component and a comparatively large volume of gas. This study therefore builds on previous investigations of the dosimetric effects of gas-filled TTEs in static photon and electron beams, by examining the effects of these implants on dose distributions from common modulated rotational treatment techniques; volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) and helical tomotherapy (HT). Radiochromic film measurements were used to evaluate the accuracy of VMAT and HT dose calculations, for a humanoid phantom augmented with a sample Aeroform CO₂-filled TTE (AirXpanders Inc, San Jose, USA) as well as purpose-designed and 3D printed “breast tissue.” Results showed that the TomoTherapy Hi-Art VoLO convolution-superposition algorithm (Accuray Inc, Sunnyvale, USA) produced comparatively accurate calculations of treatment dose within this complex phantom, including immediately anterior and posterior to the TTE. The Varian Eclipse Acuros (AXB) algorithm generally showed better agreement with the film measurement than the Varian Eclipse AAA algorithm (Varian Medical Systems, Palo Alto, USA), although the film measurements showed regions of 5% to 10% disagreement with both AAA and AXB in the dosimetrically-challenging region on the anterior side of the implant. Although the Aeroform CO₂-filled TTE has substantial and obvious effects on the downstream dose from a static photon beam, the results of this study showed how inverse-planning of modulated rotational radiotherapy treatments can produce modulated fluence distributions that compensate for the dramatic density heterogeneities in the implant. Despite some disagreements with the planned dose, all film measurements showed that the use of inverse-planned modulated rotational photon beams resulted in comparatively homogeneous coverage of the radiotherapy target, in the complex patient-like phantom with a gas-filled TTE. Due to the importance of matching each planned fluence distribution to the density distribution within each TTE, careful use of available 3D imaging techniques is advisable, when modulated rotational radiotherapy treatments are delivered to patients with gas-filled TTEs.     

Application of intensity-modulated radiation therapy for pediatric malignancies

Novel radiation therapy delivery techniques have moved very slowly in the field of pediatric oncology. Some collaborative groups allow new radiation therapy delivery techniques in their trials. In many instances, the option of using these techniques is not addressed. These newer techniques of radiation delivery have the potential to reduce the probability of the common late effects of radiation and at the same time, potentially improve upon control and survival. The purpose of this study is to show the feasibility of IMRT in pediatric patients. No treatment results or toxicities will be presented. Five patients with a variety of pediatric malignancies received intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) at our institution as part of their disease management. A rigid immobilization device was developed for each patient and a computed tomography (CT) simulation was performed in the treatment position. In 3 of the patients, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans were coregistered with the planning CT to facilitate target and critical structure delineation. In all but 1 patient, coplanar beam arrangements were used in the IMRT planning process. All IMRT plans exhibited a high degree of conformality. Dose homogeneity inside the tumor and rapid dose falloff outside the target volume is characteristic of IMRT plans, which allows for improved normal tissue sparing. Dose distributions were obtained for all plans, as well as dose and volume relationship histograms, to evaluate the fitness of the plans. IMRT is a viable alternative to conventional treatment techniques for pediatric cancer patients. The improved dose distributions coupled with the ease of delivery of the IMRT fields make this technique very attractive, especially in view of the potential to increase local control and possibly improve on survival.