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胰腺炎病人原则上应住院接受治疗,需密切监测病人的意识状态、心肺功能及尿量的变化,给予充分的液体复苏和镇痛等,同时要进行病因学评估和疾病严重性评估。对于重症急性胰腺炎病人应进入重症医学科治疗,接受器官功能监护、血液净化以及营养支持等。胰腺炎诊断48 h内应反复评估病情的严重程度,参考血流动力学指标的变化,给予病人充分的液体复苏,恢复血流动力学稳定。重症急性胰腺炎病人在行液体复苏时,通常需要大量的液体才能稳定病人的血流动力学指标。为防治重症急性胰腺炎病人的感染性并发症,建议预防性应用抗生素。为防治器官功能障碍和其他并发症,可应用大剂量的合成蛋白酶抑制剂。重症急性胰腺炎病人的营养支持应首选肠内营养。对于重症急性胰腺炎病人,可选择应用持续动脉灌注治疗和持续血液净化治疗。     

Surgical management of acute pancreatitis

This review examines the lack of improvement in terms of mortality and outcome in patients with acute pancreatitis. Energetic fluid replacement is the only treatment of proven value. There is a strong case for identification of patients with severe disease who may benefit from early operative intervention. Eradication of gallstones may prevent further attacks in patients with gallstone pancreatitis. The benefits of pancreatic resection and necrosectomy still require full evaluation.     

遏制轻型急性胰腺炎向重症转化的非手术 治疗策略

目的 ：探讨遏制急性胰腺炎向重症转化的非手术治疗策略。方法 ：将4年间收治的286例轻型急性胰腺炎分为对照组和治疗观察组。对照组采取常规非手术治疗措施;观察组加用改善胰腺微循环，防治细胞钙超载和抑制胰酶的治疗方法。结果 ：对照组144轻型有20例转化为重症胰腺炎，14例发生全身性并发症;观察组142例轻型有8例转化为重症，2例出现全身性并发症。观察组重症患者血C-反应蛋白和Balthazar CT严重度指数在治疗后各时点较对照组明显降低。结论 ：在常规治疗的基础上加用改善胰腺微循环，防治细胞钙超载和抑制胰酶的治疗措施可能有助于阻止轻型急性胰腺炎向重症化发展。     

Management strategy for acute pancreatitis in the JPN Guidelines

The diagnosis of acute pancreatitis is based on the following findings: (1) acute attacks of abdominal pain and tenderness in the epigastric region, (2) elevated blood levels of pancreatic enzymes, and (3) abnormal diagnostic imaging findings in the pancreas associated with acute pancreatitis. In Japan, in accordance with criteria established by the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare, the severity of acute pancreatitis is assessed based on the clinical signs, hematological findings, and imaging findings, including abdominal contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Severity must be re-evaluated, especially in the period 24 to 48 h after the onset of acute pancreatitis, because even cases diagnosed as mild or moderate in the early stage may rapidly progress to severe. Management is selected according to the severity of acute pancreatitis, but it is imperative that an adequate infusion volume, vital-sign monitoring, and pain relief be instituted immediately after diagnosis in every patient. Patients with severe cases are treated with broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents, a continuous high-dose protease inhibitor, and continuous intraarterial infusion of protease inhibitors and antimicrobial agents; continuous hemodiafiltration may also be used to manage patients with severe cases. Whenever possible, transjejunal enteral nutrition should be administered, even in patients with severe cases, because it seems to decrease morbidity. Necrosectomy is performed when necrotizing pancreatitis is complicated by infection. In this case, continuous closed lavage or open drainage (planned necrosectomy) should be the selected procedure. Pancreatic abscesses are treated by surgical or percutaneous drainage. Emergency endoscopic procedures are given priority over other methods of management in patients with acute gallstone-associated pancreatitis, patients suspected of having bile duct obstruction, and patients with acute gallstone pancreatitis complicated by cholangitis. These strategies for the management of acute pancreatitis are shown in the algorithm in this article.     

Akute Pankreatitis

Acute pancreatitis is a potentially fatal disease with individually differing expression of systemic involvement. For this reason early diagnosis with subsequent risk stratification is essential in the clinical management of this frequent gastroenterological disorder. Severe forms of acute pancreatitis occur in approximately 20?% of cases often requiring intensive care monitoring and interdisciplinary therapeutic approaches. In the acute phase adequate fluid replacement and sufficient analgesic therapy is of major therapeutic importance. Concerning the administration of antibiotics and the nutritional support of patients with acute pancreatitis a change in paradigms could be observed in recent years. Furthermore, endoscopic, radiological or surgical interventions can be necessary depending on the severity of the disease and potential complications.     

Acute pancreatitis: Nonsurgical management

The care of patients with severe acute pancreatitis is complex. Although numerous medical therapies have been proposed, few interventions have been shown to be of benefit in patients with severe disease. This review summarizes the nonoperative management of patients with acute pancreatitis, including therapies shown to be of little value, the role of antibiotics in patients with acute pancreatitis, the importance of monitoring and supportive care, and the rationale of endoscopic and surgical intervention.     

Therapeutic approaches to the severe type of acute pancreatitis

The therapeutic problems of acute pancreatitis were discussed by analyzing data on 110 patients we experienced recently. The overall mortality was 8.2%. Of the severe cases classified by our assessment for the severity, 82.4% had undergone a surgical operation with the mortality 21.4%. Numerous, manifold pre-operative complications were recognized in 89.3% of the surgical treated severe cases. Each of the died cases had two or more of these complications. In order to improve the results of operative management for acute pancreatitis, the therapeutic approaches to severe pancreatitis were studied experimentally with necrotizing pancreatitis in dogs. Based on these experimental results, it was suggested that the effective results may be obtained by means of administering a protease inhibitor in inhibiting the activity of enzymes released from the pancreas, and a plasma exchange, a new therapeutic measure with the aim of directly removing harmful enzymes and toxic substances from inside the body. Then, finally, the surgical procedure of pancreatectomy should be applied to the affected tissue with the aim of eradicating the source for the release of the pancreatic enzymes.     

Nutritional management of acute and chronic pancreatitis

Acute pancreatitis often results in a catabolic state characterized by profound hemodynamic, metabolic, cardiovascular, pulmonary, hematologic, and renal aberrations. Parenteral nutrition and metabolic support are essential if morbidity and mortality are to be minimized. In chronic pancreatitis, nutritional management ranges from fundamental dietary manipulation with or without administration of appropriate digestive enzymes to enteral supplementation with modular chemically defined diets to total parenteral nutrition, depending on the stage, severity, and manifestations of the disease. In prescribing nutrient substrates in both acute and chronic pancreatitis, consideration must be given to their effects on pancreatic enzyme secretion if optimal results are to be achieved.     

重症急性胰腺炎合并真菌感染的诊断和治疗

目的 由于重症急性胰腺炎病程迁延,常存在免疫和代谢功能紊乱,真菌感染成为突出的临床问题。方法 总结１９７４年８月至１９９７年１２月收治的３５２例重症急性胰腺炎,并作真菌感染的菌谱调查。诊断主要依据临床症状和细菌学证据两方面。预防措施包括早期应用肠道营养和预防性应用抗真菌药物氟康唑。治疗包括早期应用氟康唑或两性霉素Ｂ抗真菌治疗和及时的病灶清除手术。结果 ３５２例中,７３例非手术治疗,治愈率为９０．４     

Imaging of acute pancreatitis and its complications. Part 2: Complications of acute pancreatitis

The Atlanta classification of acute pancreatitis was introduced in 1992 and divides patients into mild and severe groups based on clinical and biochemical criteria. Recently, the terminology and classification scheme proposed at the initial Atlanta Symposium have been reviewed and a new consensus statement has been proposed by the Acute Pancreatitis Classification Working Group. Major changes include subdividing acute fluid collections into “acute peripancreatic fluid collection” and “acute post-necrotic pancreatic/peripancreatic fluid collection (acute necrotic collection)” based on the presence of necrotic debris. Delayed fluid collections have been similarly subdivided into “pseudocyst” and “walled of pancreatic necrosis”. Appropriate use of the new terms describing the fluid collections is important for management decision-making in patients with acute pancreatitis. The purpose of this review article is to present an overview of complications of the acute pancreatitis with emphasis on their prognostic significance and impact on clinical management and to clarify confusing terminology for pancreatic fluid collections.     

改善微循环和防止细胞钙超载在阻止急性胰腺炎重症化治疗中的作用

目的 探讨改善胰腺缺血和防止钙超载在阻止急性胰腺炎理症化治疗中的作用。方法 报道278例急性胰腺炎（AP）的治疗及体会。第一阶段（1990年1月至1994年12月）采取常规非手术治疗，第二阶段（1995年1月至1999年12月）采取改善微循环和防止细胞钙超负荷的措施。结果 后阶段的治疗方案可明显降低轻型胰腺炎向重症胰腺炎的转化率，减少全身并发症发生率，降低死亡率，缩短治愈时间。结论 重点改善胰腺缺血和防止细胞钙超负荷的治疗有助于阻止AP由轻型向重型的发展，限制胰腺坏死，改善AP预后。     

The role of surgery in the management of acute pancreatitis.

Surgical intervention in acute pancreatitis may have varied goals. Early laparotomy may be required for diagnostic purposes. There is, however, no convincing evidence that attempts to reduce the morbidity of severe pancreatitis by early operative pancreatic drainage, early formal pancreatic resection, or early biliary procedures have been effective. In fact, they may be harmful. Peritoneal lavage by catheter induced under local anesthesia may ameliorate early cardiovascular and respiratory complications in some patients. Preliminary experience suggests that early operative debridement of devitalized pancreatic tissue with postoperative lavage may be helpful in selected patients. Patients with infections of devitalized pancreatic or peripancreatic tissue require operative debridement and drainage or packing. Other complications such as colonic necrosis or pseudocysts also require operative treatment. Rarely do patients require operation to relieve protracted pancreatitis. Patients with gallstone-associated pancreatitis should usually undergo surgical correction of their cholelithiasis as soon as their pancreatitis has subsided.     

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重症急性胰腺炎(SAP)的治疗经历了一个多世纪的艰苦探索,从最初积极手术到提倡保守治疗,再到选择性手术干预;从简单手术引流、早期胰腺包膜切开引流到胰腺切除,再到坏死组织清除。如今SAP的整体病死率已从当初的60%~80%下降至10%~20%。SAP的治疗涉及到早期液体复苏、器官功能的保护与替代治疗、腹腔间隔室综合征的处理,以及营养代谢调理、感染并发症的防治及坏死后病变的手术等。进一步加强对SAP多器官功能障碍及胰腺坏死后病变及感染并发症的综合防治,准确把握手术时机及选择正确的手术方式,有望实现SAP疗效的突破。     

Safety and efficacy of conservative management in acute severe pancreatitis

Acute severe pancreatitis represents a disease with multiple complications and a high mortality rate. The clinical evolution is related to the acute systemic inflammatory response syndrome, due mainly to inflammatory mediators and pancreatic enzymes and to the infectious complications representing a peak in the incidence of death. This study aims to retrospectively analyse the outcome of patients diagnosed with acute severe pancreatitis, conservatively treated versus those surgically managed. This study includes 151 patients, each having been diagnosed with acute severe pancreatitis (CT using Balthazar's) distributed in term of age, sex and severity parameters. The conservative treatment has included antibiotics, and anti-inflammatory drugs. The imaging and biological parameters were further statistically analysed. The clinical-biological evolution has been paralleled by the CT severity index. The conservatively treated group had a better clinical-biological outcome (p<0.05), when compared with the surgically treated group. Morbidity was significantly higher in the group exposed to surgical treatment. Conservative treatment should be the first option in acute severe pancreatitis management.     

Surgical results of severe acute pancreatitis with special consideration of the severity of pancreatitis

The surgical treatment of acute pancreatitis remains controversial. Since 1975, we have treated 70 patients with acute pancreatitis. In 36 with severe acute pancreatitis who were not responding adequately to medical intensive treatments, mobilization and drainage of pancreatic exudate from pancreatic bed and retroperitoneal cavity (M-D procedure) were carried out. Thirty-six operative cases were classified into 8 edematous, 7 hemorrhagic, and 21 necrotizing. Edematous pancreatitis showed a tendency of early development of severe symptoms such as enzymatic encephalopathy. Eight of 36 patients who underwent M-D procedure died (22.2 percent), but the rate became 13.8 percent after excluding 3 who died of unrelated causes. Postoperative complications were most frequently encountered in the patients with gallstone pancreatitis. Obstruction of the alimentary tract due to pancreatic or peripancreatic abscess was most serious late complication. Six of the eight were required reoperations and three of them died of further complications which were developed after reoperations. The rate of curability of M-D procedure was 84.8 percent. These data suggest that M-D procedure is highly effective in the treatment of early case of severe acute pancreatitis.     

Imaging and imaging-guided therapy in severe acute pancreatitis

Effective utilization of imaging in patients with severe acute pancreatitis requires an understanding of the subtypes and complications of pancreatitis. Imaging, particularly computed tomography, can confirm the diagnosis of pancreatitis, identify local complications, offer prognostic information, and guide therapeutic interventions. Conventional radiography, ultrasound, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, and magnetic resonance imaging have important adjunctive roles in the evaluation and treatment of patients with severe acute pancreatitis. Early identification of pancreatic parenchymal necrosis and areas of infection facilitates timely and appropriate management of these often critically ill patients. Imaging-guided interventions can provide definitive or adjunctive treatment for fluid collections, biliary and pancreatic duct obstruction, and vascular complications.     

JPN Guidelines for the management of acute pancreatitis: severity assessment of acute pancreatitis

This article addresses the criteria for severity assessment and the severity scoring system of the Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan; now the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare (the JPN score). It also presents data comparing the JPN score with the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II score and the Ranson score, which are the major measuring scales used in the United States and Europe. The goal of investigating these scoring systems is the achievement of earlier diagnosis and more appropriate and successful treatment of severe or moderate acute pancreatitis, which has a high mortality rate. This article makes the following recommendations in terms of assessing the severity of acute pancreatitis: (1) Severity assessment is indispensable to the selection of proper initial treatment in the management of acute pancreatitis (Recommendation A). (2) Assessment by a severity scoring system (JPN score, APACHE II score) is important for determining treatment policy and identifying the need for transfer to a specialist unit (Recommendation A). (3) C-reactive protein (CRP) is a useful indicator for assessing severity (Recommendation A). (4) Contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) scanning and contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) play an important role in severity assessment (Recommendation A). (5) A JPN score of 2 or more (severe acute pancreatitis) has been established as the criterion for hospital transfer (Recommendation A). (6) It is preferable to transfer patients with severe acute pancreatitis to a specialist medical institution where they can receive continuous monitoring and systemic management.     

Gallstone pancreatitis

Gallstone pancreatitis is caused by transient obstruction of the ampulla of Vater by a migrating gallstone. Intraglandular activation of pancreatic enzymes occurs (by an unclear mechanism), and their entry into the circulation causes most of the local and systemic events of pancreatitis. The diagnosis is based on history and physical examination, an elevation of serum amylase above 1000 IU/L, and ultrasound and CT scans. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography can be used in less certain cases to confirm the presence of common bile duct stones. Because of the absence of an agent that can abort progression of the disease, therapy should consist of adequate resuscitation, nutritional support, and careful monitoring to detect early complications. In patients with mild pancreatitis, surgery usually can be performed within 48 or 72 hours of admission or as soon as symptoms and amylase levels return to normal. For patients with severe disease, endoscopic sphincterotomy is emerging as the therapeutic modality of choice. Elective treatment of the associated biliary disease should be performed during the same hospitalization after the acute phase of the disease has subsided.     

暴发性急性胰腺炎的诊断与治疗

With the unremitting efforts of researchers for the past 40 years, the survival of patients with severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) has been improved to 86%. Patients with SAP, although had been given fluid resuscitation and formal non-operative therapy in 72 hours after the onset, still progress to organ dysfunction can be diagnosed with fulminant acute pancreatitis (FAP). The treatment methods for FAP include sufficient fluid resuscitation, formal non-operative therapy and removing etiological factors. If patients have the tendency toward deterioration of organ function or incidence of abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS), creating conditions for early surgical drainage is essential, and the surgical procedure should be as simple as possible. The survival rate of patients with FAP is still unsatisfactory, and the advanced age, high scores of acute physiology and chronic health enquiry ( APACHE Ⅱ ), sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) and Balthazar, and the incidence of ACS are the indicators for a poor prognosis of patients with FAP.     

Evolution of nutritional support in acute pancreatitis

BACKGROUND: Acute pancreatitis is a catabolic illness and patients with the severe form have high metabolic and nutrient demands. Artificial nutritional support should therefore be a logical component of treatment. This review examines the evidence in favour of initiating nutritional support in these patients and the effects of such support on the course of the disease. METHODS: Medline and Science Citation Index searches were performed to locate English language publications on nutritional support in acute pancreatitis in the 25 years preceding December 1999. Manual cross-referencing was also carried out. Letters, editorials, older review articles and most case reports were excluded. Results and conclusion: There is no evidence that nutritional support in acute pancreatitis affects the underlying disease process, but it may prevent the associated undernutrition and starvation, supporting the patient while the disease continues and until normal and sufficient eating can be resumed. The safety and feasibility of enteral nutrition in acute pancreatitis have been established; enteral nutrition may even be superior to parenteral nutrition. Some patients, however, cannot tolerate enteral feeding and this route may not be practical in others. Parenteral nutrition still has a role, either on its own or in combination with the oral and enteral routes, depending on the stage of the illness and the clinical situation.