Relative weight, weight loss efforts and nutrient intakes among health-conscious vegetarian, past vegetarian and nonvegetarian women ages 18 to 50

OBJECTIVE: To compare relative weight, weight loss efforts and nutrient intakes among similarly health-conscious vegetarian, past vegetarian and nonvegetarian premenopausal women. METHODS: Demographic data, lifestyle practices and weight loss efforts (by questionnaire), body mass index (BMI;kg/m2) and dietary intake (via multiple-pass 24-hour diet recall) were compared in a convenience sample of 90 current vegetarians, 35 past vegetarians and 68 nonvegetarians. RESULTS: Age (31.9 +/- 8.8), educational attainment, smoking status, alcohol use, physical activity and perceived health status were similar among the three groups of women. BMI did not differ by dietary pattern and averaged 23.7 +/- 4.7 for all women combined. Participants had intentionally lost > or = 10 pounds a mean of 2.1 times, and 39% of women perceived themselves to be overweight; again, no differences were observed among dietary groups. Dietary intakes of vegetarians and current nonvegetarians were consistent with current recommendations for macronutrient composition (< 30% fat, < 10% saturates). Compared to current nonvegetarians, current vegetarians had lower intakes of protein, saturated fat, cholesterol, niacin, vitamins B12 and D, and higher fiber and magnesium intakes. Vegetarians' mean vitamin B12 and D intakes were well below recommendations. CONCLUSIONS: Relative weight and weight loss efforts do not differ by dietary pattern among similarly health-conscious vegetarian and nonvegetarian women. The only differences in nutrient intake with potential health implications were vitamins D and B12.     

Dietary macro- and micronutrient intakes of nonsupplemented pre- and postmenopausal women with a perspective on menopause-associated diseases.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the dietary intakes and diet quality of menopausal women relative to premenopausal women, and to determine whether their diets are compatible with reducing risks of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and osteoporosis. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study using 3-day food records and anthropometric measurements. Subjects Thirty apparently healthy, nonoestrogen using and nonsupplemented women menopausal since 3-5 years and 30 well-matched premenopausal women. Outcome measures Nutrient intakes, diet nutrient density, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and serum oestradiol. RESULTS: Energy intake and body weight of pre- and postmenopausal women were comparable. Their BMI, waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratios were within healthy ranges. The diet of postmenopausal women was compatible (less total lipids and saturated fatty acids; more fibres, antioxidant vitamins and potassium) with North American nutritional recommendations linked to cardiovascular health. Their dietary iron intakes exceeded their reduced physiological need, which may jeopardize their cardiovascular system. Their calcium and vitamin D intakes were far below recommendations for healthy bones. Five other nutrients were also suboptimal. Phosphorus intake (high in both groups) correlated with dietary proteins, sulphur amino acids and calcium. CONCLUSIONS: The diet of the postmenopausal women studied were more compatible with national nutritional recommendations than that of premenopausal controls. However, these postmenopausal women, not taking hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and having inadequate dietary calcium and vitamin D intakes, may be at increased risk of osteoporotic fracture later in life. More studies on CVD risk inherent to body iron accumulation involving a large number of postmenopausal women are warranted before planning public health measures regarding dietary iron intake.     

Changes in energy intakes during pregnancy and lactation in a national sample of US women.

Increases in energy intakes during pregnancy and lactation were evaluated by examining dietary data for 458 pregnant women who participated in the Continuing Surveys of Food Intakes by Individuals conducted in 1985 and 1986. Energy intakes were well below recommendations during all reproductive states; however, increases during pregnancy approximated recommendations, while increases during lactation were low. Postpartum non-lactating intakes did not return to prepregnancy levels for Black women or women with lower incomes.     

Total Fat and Fatty Acid Intake among 1–7-Year-Old Children from 33 Countries: Comparison with International Recommendations

This work reviews available data on dietary intakes of total fat, saturated fatty acids (SFA) and individual polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in children in different countries worldwide and for the first time, compares them with recent international recommendations. Studies published before June 2021 reporting total fat, total SFA and individual PUFA intakes in children aged 1–7 y were included. Observed intakes were evaluated against FAO/WHO and EFSA recommendations. 65 studies from 33 countries were included. Fat intake was too low in 88% of studies in young children (1–3 y). SFA intake was >10%E in 69–73% of children, especially in Europe. Linoleic acid intake was <3%E in 24% of studies in 1–2 y olds and within FAO/WHO recommendations among all other ages. Alpha-linolenic acid intake was <0.5%E in almost half of studies. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or eicosapentaenoic acid + DHA intakes were below recommendations in most studies. In summary, while total fat intake was too low among younger children, SFA intake was above, especially in Europe and n-3 PUFA intake, especially DHA, were below recommendations for all ages. Intake of n-3 PUFA, especially DHA, is generally suboptimal. More data, particularly from developing countries, are required to refine these findings and guide implementation of adapted nutrition policies.     

Relative Weight,Weight Loss Efforts and Nutrient Intakes among Health-Conscious Vegetarian,Past Vegetarian and Nonvegetarian Women Ages 18 to 50.

Objective: To compare relative weight, weight loss efforts and nutrient intakes among similarly health-conscious vegetarian, past vegetarian and nonvegetarian premenopausal women.

Methods: Demographic data, lifestyle practices and weight loss efforts (by questionnaire), body mass index (BMI;kg/m²) and dietary intake (via multiple-pass 24-hour diet recall) were compared in a convenience sample of 90 current vegetarians, 35 past vegetarians and 68 nonvegetarians.

Results: Age (31.9 ± 8.8), educational attainment, smoking status, alcohol use, physical activity and perceived health status were similar among the three groups of women. BMI did not differ by dietary pattern and averaged 23.7 ± 4.7 for all women combined. Participants had intentionally lost ≥ 10 pounds a mean of 2.1 times, and 39% of women perceived themselves to be overweight; again, no differences were observed among dietary groups. Dietary intakes of vegetarians and current nonvegetarians were consistent with current recommendations for macronutrient composition (<30% fat, <10% saturates). Compared to current nonvegetarians, current vegetarians had lower intakes of protein, saturated fat, cholesterol, niacin, vitamins B₁₂ and D, and higher fiber and magnesium intakes. Vegetarians’ mean vitamin B₁₂ and D intakes were well below recommendations.

Conclusions: Relative weight and weight loss efforts do not differ by dietary pattern among similarly health-conscious vegetarian and nonvegetarian women. The only differences in nutrient intake with potential health implications were vitamins D and B₁₂.     

Maternal Diet Influences Fetal Growth but Not Fetal Kidney Volume in an Australian Indigenous Pregnancy Cohort

Suboptimal nutrition during pregnancy is recognised as a significant modifiable determinant in the development of chronic disease in offspring in later life. The current study aimed: (i) to assess the dietary intakes of pregnant Indigenous Australian women against national recommendations and (ii) to investigate the associations between maternal nutrition during pregnancy and the growth of the offspring, including kidney development in late gestation in the Gomeroi gaaynggal cohort (n = 103). Maternal dietary intake in the third trimester was assessed using the Australian Eating Survey Food Frequency Questionnaire. Estimated fetal weight (EFW) and kidney size were obtained by ultrasound. Birth weight was retrieved from hospital birth records. Of the five key nutrients for optimal reproductive health (folate, iron, calcium, zinc and fibre), the nutrients with the highest percentage of pregnant women achieving the nutrient reference values (NRVs) were zinc (75.7%) and folate (57.3%), whereas iron was the lowest. Only four people achieved all NRVs (folate, iron, calcium, zinc and fibre) important in pregnancy. Sodium and saturated fat intake exceeded recommended levels and diet quality was low, with a median score of 28 out of 73 points. After adjusting for smoking and pre-pregnancy body mass index, only maternal intake of retinol equivalents and the proportion of energy from nutrient-dense or energy-dense, nutrient-poor (EDNP) foods were associated with fetal growth. EFW decreased by 0.13 g and birth weight decreased by 0.24 g for every µg increase in maternal dietary retinol intake. Interestingly, EFW, but not actual birth weight, was positively associated with percentage energy from nutrient dense foods and negatively associated with percentage energy from EDNP foods. Dietary supplement usage was associated with increased birthweight, most significantly iron and folate supplementation. Current dietary intakes of pregnant Australian women from this cohort do not align with national guidelines. Furthermore, current findings show that maternal retinol intake and diet composition during pregnancy can influence fetal growth, but not fetal kidney growth in late gestation. Strategies that aim to support and optimise nutrient intakes of Indigenous pregnant women are urgently needed. Future studies with long-term follow-up of the children in the current cohort to assess renal damage and blood pressure are imperative.     

Psychosocial influences in dietary patterns during pregnancy

There is increasing evidence that psychosocial factors may affect dietary intakes and health. The current analysis examined the association of six indices of psychosocial well-being with dietary intake during pregnancy. One hundred thirty-four women with low-risk, normal pregnancies participated in a cross-sectional, observational study that assessed dietary intake at 28 weeks' gestation. Psychosocial characteristics, including anxiety, depressed mood, anger, fatigue, social support, and stress were assessed between 24 and 32 weeks' gestation. Pearson product-moment correlations were calculated to determine the relationships between psychosocial factors and diet. Findings suggest that pregnant women who were more fatigued, stressed, and anxious consumed more foods, as evidenced by their increased macronutrient intakes, while appearing to have decreased intakes of some micronutrients. Psychosocial factors should be considered when counseling women regarding diet during pregnancy.     

Dietary Patterns,Nutrient Intake,and Sociodemographic Characteristics in HIV-Infected Tanzanian Pregnant Women

Routinely collected dietary intakes were available for 925 HIV-infected pregnant women participating in a longitudinal clinical trial of vitamin supplementation in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Information on sociodemographic and economic characteristics was recorded. Dietary macronutrient intakes were computed and analyzed using the Tanzania Food Composition Tables. Women's age, parity, education level, and economic independence were positively related to diet intake. Women younger than 25 years were at highest risk of inadequate food and nutrient intake. By World Health Organization recommendations, almost two-thirds of the participants were energy deficient, and nearly half were protein deficient.     

Diet quality of Montreal-area adults needs improvement: estimates from a self-administered food frequency questionnaire furnishing a dietary indicator score

OBJECTIVE/DESIGN: Time and budget constraints limit nutrition evaluation in Canadian health surveys. To encourage regular population diet monitoring in Canada, we developed and assessed the relative validity of a population-based food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to assess usual diet in Quebecers. A 73-item, self-administered semiquantitative FFQ was designed in French and English from the Block National Cancer Institute Health Habits and History Questionnaire to capture usual food consumption among Quebec adults. The US Department of Agriculture Healthy Eating Index (HEI) (maximum score=100) was adapted to Canadian age- and sex-specific dietary recommendations, validated, and programmed to score the FFQ for diet quality. SUBJECTS: The FFQ was pretested, pilot tested, and administered by mail to a random sample of 248 adults aged 18 to 82 years in the Montreal area (57% women) who were recruited by random digit dialing (64% response rate). A subgroup (n=94) furnished four nonconsecutive 1-day food records for validation of the FFQ. RESULTS: Mean FFQ energy intakes were 2,216 kcal (median 2,110 kcal) for men and 1,785 kcal (median 1,680 kcal) for women. Proportional median macronutrient consumption was similar in both sexes at 17% protein, 34% to 35% fats, and 48% to 49% carbohydrates, but differed by age group in women. Adequacy of micronutrient intakes relative to Dietary Reference Intakes varied by age, sex, and nutrient. Whereas most mean or median intakes were at or exceeded recommendations, calcium intakes were low overall and levels of several other nutrients were very low at the 10th percentile. Mean Canadian HEI (range 46 to 99) was higher in women (74.9) than men (70.3, P<.001). Women's scores showed they met recommendations for intakes of vegetables and fruit, cholesterol, and sodium better than men (P ranged from <.01 to <.0001), while men fared better at meeting recommended fat intake levels (P<.05). CONCLUSIONS: The Canadian HEI adequately discriminates overall diet quality based on dietary data estimated from our FFQ. Examination of subscores within and between quartiles may best reveal which food groups require attention to improve diet quality, providing valuable information for teaching and planning. Future studies should test diet quality indicators in populations recruited to reflect greater dietary diversity and reporting ability and include members of disadvantaged groups to provide a broader set of behaviors that could shed light on factors influencing diet quality.     

Nutrient intake of women with and without gestational diabetes with a specific focus on fatty acids

OBJECTIVE: Diet therapy is the cornerstone for the management of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Women with GDM are commonly given dietary advice that broadly focuses on a reduction of total energy and fat consumption. We compared nutrient intake and specifically fatty acids of women with GDM who had received individualized nutritional counseling with those of non-diabetic women who did not. METHOD: Women with GDM (n=44) and healthy pregnant women (n=44) with uncomplicated singleton pregnancies were recruited during the third trimester. Women with GDM were given consultation on diet, health, and macronutrient content of foods commonly consumed by the individual. The non-diabetic group did not receive any dietary advice. Both groups were asked to keep a detailed record of all of foods and fluid consumed over a 4-d period. RESULTS: After dietary counseling, the GDM group had lower intakes of energy (P<0.05), refined sugar (P<0.0001), total and saturated fats (P<0.0001), and monounsaturated (P<0.01) and trans (P<0.0001) fatty acids and higher levels of docosahexaenoic acid and fiber (P<0.05) compared with the non-diabetic group. CONCLUSIONS: Individualized dietary advice was associated with a lower consumption of the target nutrients in women with GDM. Another benefit of the advice was a slight increase in intake of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids, although consumption of omega-3 fatty acids by both groups was well below the recommendations for pregnancy. There is evidence that docosahexaenoic acid modulates insulin resistance and that it is vital for neurovisual development. We suggest that dietary management for women with GDM should foster the current recommendations for essential fatty acids in pregnancy.     

Diet and nutrient intakes in urban women of Rajasthan State,Northern India

Dietary and nutrient intakes of adult women have not been studied extensively which may contribute in increasing burden of morbidity and mortality in women. Present study assessed the diet and nutrient intake of women in the age group of 35 –70 years. Door to door personal contact was done with women in identified locations and background was elicited using a questionnaire. Average intake of different foods and nutrients were recorded using semi quantitative FFQ and compared with Indian standards. Results revealed that average cereal, pulse, fruits, and vegetable intakes were below recommendations. Both energy and protein intakes were inadequate among subjects. Total fat, SAFA, and TFA intakes were higher and PUFA, MUFA, fibre, dietary iron, and folic acid intakes were lower than the recommendations. It was concluded that high fat intake and low fibre, PUFA, MUFA, iron, and folic acid intake may prone this community to diet-related chronic diseases.     

Diet composition and body composition in preschool children

BACKGROUND: In studies of adult humans and in animal models, dietary intakes of the macronutrients, particularly fat, are related to body composition; however, data on children are more scarce. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine whether diet composition is related to percentage body fat in children aged 1.5-4.5 y. DESIGN: In 77 preschool children, a 4-d weighed-food record was used to determine intakes of total energy and energy from each macronutrient. An oxygen-18 dilution method was used to calculate percentage body fat. Habitual physical activity level was determined by calculating the ratio of total energy expenditure (from stable isotope analyses) to predicted basal metabolic rate. Dietary intake and body-composition data were analyzed to evaluate whether diet composition was related to body fat. Further analyses incorporating physical activity level were performed. RESULTS: Percentage body fat was not significantly correlated with dietary intake variables (total energy or percentage of energy from fat, carbohydrate, or protein) and did not differ significantly among 3 increasing levels of each dietary intake variable by analysis of variance. In multiple regression analysis, physical activity level was related to body fat whereas diet composition was not. CONCLUSIONS: We found no relations between dietary intakes of total energy, fat, carbohydrate, or protein and percentage body fat in children. The relation between fat intake and body fat may develop over time and may not be evident in preschool children. Energy expenditure, in particular physical activity level, may have a greater influence on body composition in early childhood.     

Eating behaviors and health history of rural midlife to older women in the midwestern United States

This study was conducted to examine daily energy, food group, and nutrient intakes of late midlife to older women living in the rural Midwestern United States compared with recommended intakes for the US population, and to describe their physical measures and health history. Random-digit dialing was used to recruit 225 community-dwelling women aged 50 to 69 years from a rural Midwestern area of the United States. Participants completed online food intake and health history surveys. Nearly half of the women had energy intakes in excess of their Estimated Energy Requirement. Mean daily servings of fruits, grains, and dairy products were below target levels identified in the 2000 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Mean calcium and dietary fiber intakes were below recommended levels, while percent calories from fat (39.0%+/-6.8%) were well above recommendations. Eighty percent were overweight or obese and 76% were prehypertensive or hypertensive, yet only 33.5% indicated their health care provider had discussed dietary factors with them in the previous year. Late midlife and older rural Midwestern women, aged 50 to 69 years, need more guidance than they currently receive to learn how to make changes to meet dietary recommendations, particularly with a focus on establishing a more healthful dietary pattern that will be suitable for their older years.     

Food components and dietary patterns of two different groups of Mexican lactating women

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the energy, nutrient intakes and dietary patterns of Mexican lactating women at one month postpartum, and the associations of maternal age and region on their intakes. METHODS: A total of 60 women were studied: 41 from Northwest and 19 from Central Mexico, 33 adolescent and 27 adult women. Data were collected through two quantitative 24 h recalls. Two more recalls were used in a sub sample to calculate the coefficient of variation of intakes. Menus were based on the consumption frequency of foods. RESULTS: The mean energy intake of the adolescent women (2354 +/- 1199 kcal) and those of Central Mexico (1690 +/- 981 kcal) was lower than the recommendations. Zinc, calcium, vitamin E, C and folate were inadequate (55 to 85% prevalence of inadequacy). Energy, dietary fiber, sodium, potassium, iron and folate intakes were higher (P < 0.05) in Northwest Mexico. Northwestern women consumed less variety of vegetables or fruits compared to Mexico City region women. Wheat tortillas and beans were from Northwestern but not from the Mexico City region diet. CONCLUSIONS: The energy and nutrient intakes of women were different by regional hospital and not by age. Education about the importance of the maternal diet during lactation should be directed toward increasing consumption of foods rich in micronutrients.     

Associations between fat,sugar and other macronutrient intakes in the National Diet and Nutrition Survey

Observational studies show an inverse relationship between fat and sugar within diets, described as the ‘fat‐sugar seesaw’. It has been suggested however, that this is a consequence of expressing macronutrient intakes as percentages of energy intake rather than by the dietary choices made by individuals. To test this we examined the associations between macronutrient intakes in the diets of adults (n = 1724) participating in the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) and within the same adults across different days of the week. Pearson's correlations were calculated between the macronutrient intakes from fat, total sugar, intrinsic sugars, non‐milk extrinsic sugars (NMES), non‐sugar carbohydrate, protein and alcohol. Energy intakes relative to estimated basal metabolic rate (BMR) were calculated to partially account for differences in energy requirements. Pearson's correlations also examined associations between the same macronutrients in foods from the Nutrient Databank (ND), used to analyse dietary intakes in the NDNS. Correlations between fat and sugar(s) were calculated in five ways: (i) percentage energy between individuals; (ii) amount (g) between individuals; (iii) amount (g) relative to BMR between individuals; (iv) within individuals over seven days; and (v) between food items in the ND. Negative correlations were obtained between mean daily percentage energy intakes of fat and, total sugars, NMES and intrinsic sugars (all P < 0.001). However, when mean daily macronutrient intakes were expressed in weight (g)/day, these were all positively correlated (all P < 0.001). Mean estimated correlations between macronutrient intakes (g/day) for each individual across the days of the week were also positive, indicating a lack of fat‐sugar seesaw effect. Within the ND, the correlation between fat and total sugar (g/100g of food) was weakly positive (P = 0.006). Only when examining the correlation between fat and sugar(s) between individuals in percentage terms (% energy) was the fat‐sugar seesaw evident; in all other methods the correlations between fat and sugar(s) were positive. Examination of the effects of using percentage energy values to describe the macronutrient composition demonstrated that the fat‐sugar seesaw is only an inevitable mathematical consequence, rather than the result of dietary choice. Comparing diet composition in percentage terms alone can therefore be misleading. It is only when examined as absolute values (weight), as well as percentage contributions to energy, that the interrelationships between macronutrients can be studied fully.     

Energy expenditure and dietary intake during high-volume and low-volume training periods among male endurance athletes

The primary purpose of this study was to examine dietary intake in endurance-trained athletes during a week of high-volume and a week of low-volume training while measuring exercise energy expenditure (EEE), resting metabolic rate (RMR), and nonexercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT). In addition, compliance with current American College of Sports Medicine/American Dietetic Association nutrition and performance recommendations for macronutrients was evaluated. Energy expenditure and dietary intake were measured in 15 male endurance athletes during 2 nonconsecutive weeks resembling a high-volume and a low-volume training period. Anthropometric measurements were taken and percentage body fat was determined at the beginning and end of each week of training. Total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) was calculated by summing RMR, NEAT, and EEE. Dietary intake was assessed with an online food-frequency questionnaire completed at the end of each week of data collection. Despite significant differences between TDEE and energy intake, no difference in body composition between the beginning and end of either week of training was observed, suggesting underreporting of caloric intake. Further, no changes in total caloric intake or macronutrient intake occurred even though TDEE increased significantly during the high-volume training. Reported carbohydrate intake (4.5?g·kg(-1)) and fiber intake (25?g·day(-1)) were below recommendations, whereas fat intake (1.3?g·kg(-1)) was slightly above recommendations. In summary, no short-term dietary adjustments occurred in response to differences in training regimen. Because these athletes were generally consuming a Western diet, they may have required some support to achieve desirable intakes for health and performance.     

Change in nutrient intake between adolescence and adulthood: a 21-year longitudinal study

Summary   The period between adolescence and adulthood is a time of great change, mentally, physically and socially. Such changes can have a profound impact on nutrient intake. Yet whilst some short-term studies have attempted to assess dietary change during adolescence, few have considered how diet changes over the longer term, spanning the transition between adolescence and adulthood. This article describes the findings of the first British study to assess the change in macronutrient and micronutrient intake from early adolescence into adulthood. The study sample comprised 202 participants of a dietary survey carried out on Northumberland 12 years olds in 1979–80 who were followed up at 33 years old. At both time-points dietary intake was measured using two 3-day food diaries with follow-up interviews to record estimated portion size. The most notable findings were that between 12 and 33 years old, for both males and females, % food energy intakes of fat, total sugars and carbohydrate had fallen and protein intakes had risen, whilst absolute intakes of unavailable carbohydrate and all micronutrients considered (vitamin C, iron, calcium, vitamin D), with the exception of retinol equivalents, had increased. These changes in intake were generally consistent in direction between males and females. In conclusion, nutrient intake undergoes considerable change between adolescence and adulthood and, in most respects, this is in a direction in line with dietary recommendations. This does not imply that efforts should not be made to improve childhood and adolescent diet given the importance of diet on health in adolescence and later in life and evidence that dietary intake is, to some extent, established at an early age.     

南疆263例维吾尔族孕中晚期孕妇膳食营养调查

目的 探讨分析南疆某县263例维吾尔族孕中晚期孕妇膳食营养及相关因素,为指导少数民族孕妇合理营养,促进母婴健康提供依据。方法 以新疆喀什市妇幼保健院孕妇为整群,采用整群随机抽样的方法选取263例维吾尔族孕中晚期孕妇,采用24 h回顾法进行膳食调查,结合2013年制定的《中国居民膳食营养素参考摄入量》分析比较。结果 孕中晚期维吾尔族孕妇膳食中磷、维生素B1、钠达到膳食营养素参考摄入量（dietary reference intakes,DRIs）的181.63%、120.67%和466.90%;钙、维生素B2、维生素C、铁为DDIs的42.62%、66.00%、70.12%、89.59%;叶酸、碘仅为DRIs的15.96%、14.39%。维吾尔族孕中晚期孕妇的脂肪摄入量较少。非首次妊娠的维吾尔族孕妇与蛋白质的摄入量成正相关,差异具有统计学意义（r=0.209,P=0.001）;非首次妊娠的维吾尔族孕妇与碳水化合物的摄入量成正相关,差异具有统计学意义（r=0.203,P=0.001）。结论 南疆某县维吾尔族孕中晚期孕妇摄入超标的营养素是磷、维生素B1、钠;摄入较少的营养素是维生素B2、维生素C、铁;极度缺乏的营养素是叶酸和碘。     

Older pregnant women and adolescents: nutrition data after enrollment in WIC

Although there has been an increase in pregnancy in women over 35 years of age, the literature contains no information on dietary intakes of older pregnant women. Several studies have reported the nutritional status of pregnant adolescents who are considered to be at nutritional risk. This study investigated the energy, nutrient, and food intake patterns of 63 low-income pregnant women over 35 compared with 526 pregnant adolescents. Nutrient intake was assessed using a standardized 24-hour dietary recall protocol. Energy values for both groups were below recommended levels, and neither group gained the recommended amount of weight. Obesity may have been the reason for the lack of weight gain by the older pregnant women, since more than 50% of the older pregnant women were calculated to be obese prior to pregnancy. The younger women reported consuming less milk but more snack foods with lower nutrient densities, which significantly increased their energy values over those of the older group. In comparison with diets reported in other studies, the diets of the older pregnant women were more nutrient dense for most nutrients. Although all participants were enrolled in WIC, an equal number of women from both groups stated that they did not have the supplemental foods in their households at the time of interview.