Effects of decellularization on the mechanical and structural properties of the porcine aortic valve leaflet

The potential for decellularized aortic heart valves (AVs) as heart valve replacements is based on the assumption that the major cellular immunogenic components have been removed, and that the remaining extracellular matrix (ECM) should retain the necessary mechanical properties and functional design. However, decellularization processes likely alter the ECM mechanical and structural properties, potentially affecting long-term durability. In the present study, we explored the effects of an anionic detergent (sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)), enzymatic agent (Trypsin), and a non-ionic detergent (Triton X-100) on the mechanical and structural properties of AV leaflets (AVLs) to provide greater insight into the initial functional state of the decellularized AVL. The overall extensibility represented by the areal strain under 60 N/m increased from 68.85% for the native AV to 139.95%, 137.51%, and 177.69% for SDS, Trypsin, and Triton X-100, respectively, after decellularization. In flexure, decellularized AVLs demonstrated a profound loss of stiffness overall, and also produced a nonlinear moment-curvature relation compared to the linear response of the native AVL. Effective flexural moduli decreased from 156.0+/-24.6 kPa for the native AV to 23.5+/-5.8, 15.6+/-4.8, and 19.4+/-8.9 kPa for SDS, Trypsin, and Triton X-100 treated leaflets, respectively. While the overall leaflet fiber architecture remained relatively unchanged, decellularization resulted in substantial microscopic disruption. In conclusion, changes in mechanical and structural properties of decellularized leaflets were likely associated with disruption of the ECM, which may impact the durability of the leaflets.     

Comparison of decellularization techniques for preparation of extracellular matrix scaffolds derived from three-dimensional cell culture

Extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffolds derived from cultured cells have drawn increasing attention for use in tissue engineering. We have developed a method to prepare cultured cell-derived ECM scaffolds by combining three-dimensional cell culture, decellularization, and selective template removal. Cell-ECM-template complexes were first formed by culture of cells in a poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) mesh template to deposit their own ECM. The complexes were subsequently decellularized to remove cellular components. Finally, the PLGA template was selectively removed to obtain the ECM scaffolds. Seven decellularization methods were compared for their decellularization effects during scaffold preparation. They were: freeze-thaw cycling (-80°C, six times) with ammonia water (25 mM); 0.1% Triton? X-100 (TX100) with 1.5M KCl aqueous solution; freeze-thaw cycling alone; ammonia water alone; TX100 extraction; osmotic shock with 1.5M KCl; and freeze-thaw cycling with 3M NaCl. Among these methods, the methods of freeze-thaw cycling with NH(4) OH and TX100 with 1.5M KCl showed the best effect on the removal of cellular components from the complexes, while the other five methods could only partially remove cellular components. The ECM scaffolds prepared by these two methods had similar gross appearances and microstructures. In vivo implantation of the ECM scaffolds prepared by these two methods induced mild host responses. The two decellularization methods were demonstrated to be effective for preparation of cultured cell-derived ECM scaffolds.     

Effect of three decellularisation protocols on the mechanical behaviour and structural properties of sheep aortic valve conduits

PurposeTo determine the best method for decellularisation of aortic valve conduits (AVCs) that efficiently removes the cells while preserving the extracellular matrix (ECM) by examining the valvular and conduit sections separately.Material/methodsSheep AVCs were decellularised by using three different protocols: detergent-based (1% SDS + 1% SDC), detergent and enzyme-based (Triton + EDTA + RNase and DNase), and enzyme-based (Trypsin + RNase and DNase) methods. The efficacy of the decellularisation methods to completely remove the cells while preserving the ECM was evaluated by histological evaluation, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), hydroxyproline analysis, tensile test, and DAPI staining.ResultsThe detergent-based method completely removed the cells and left the ECM and collagen content in the valve and conduit sections relatively well preserved. The detergent and enzyme-based protocol did not completely remove the cells, but left the collagen content in both sections well preserved. ECM deterioration was observed in the aortic valves (AVs), but the ultrastructure of the conduits was well preserved, with no media distortion. The enzyme-based protocol removed the cells relatively well; however, mild structural distortion and poor collagen content was observed in the AVs. Incomplete cell removal (better than that observed with the detergent and enzyme-based protocol), poor collagen preservation, and mild structural distortion were observed in conduits treated with the enzyme-based method.ConclusionsThe results suggested that the detergent-based methods are the most effective protocols for cell removal and ECM preservation of AVCs. The AVCs treated with this detergent-based method may be excellent scaffolds for recellularisation.     

Evaluation of decellularization protocols for production of tubular small intestine submucosa scaffolds for use in oesophageal tissue engineering

Small intestine submucosa (SIS) has emerged as one of a number of naturally derived extracellular matrix (ECM) biomaterials currently in clinical use. In addition to clinical applications, ECM materials form the basis for a variety of approaches within tissue engineering research. In our preliminary work it was found that SIS can be consistently and reliably made into tubular scaffolds which confer certain potential advantages. Given that decellularization protocols for SIS are applied to sheet-form SIS, it was hypothesized that a tubular-form SIS would behave differently to pre-existing protocols. In this work, tubular SIS was produced and decellularized by the conventional peracetic acid–agitation method, peracetic acid under perfusion along with two commonly used detergent–perfusion protocols. The aim of this was to produce a tubular SIS that was both adequately decellularized and possessing the mechanical properties which would make it a suitable scaffold for oesophageal tissue engineering, which was one of the goals of this work. Analysis was carried out via mechanical tensile testing, DNA quantification, scanning electron and light microscopy, and a metabolic assay, which was used to give an indication of the biocompatibility of each decellularization method. Both peracetic acid protocols were shown to be unsuitable methods with the agitation-protocol-produced SIS, which was poorly decellularized, and the perfusion protocol resulted in poor mechanical properties. Both detergent-based protocols produced well-decellularized SIS, with no adverse mechanical effects; however, one protocol emerged, SDS/Triton X-100, which proved superior in both respects. However, this SIS showed reduced metabolic activity, and this cytotoxic effect was attributed to residual reagents. Consequently, the use of SIS produced using the detergent SD as the decellularization agent was deemed to be the most suitable, although the elimination of the DNase enzyme would give further improvement.     

Isolation of intact aortic valve scaffolds for heart-valve bioprostheses: extracellular matrix structure, prevention from calcification, and cell repopulation features

Extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffolds isolated from valvulated conduits can be useful in developing durable bioprostheses by tissue engineering provided that anatomical shape, architecture, and mechanical properties are preserved. As evidenced by SEM, intact scaffolds were derived from porcine aortic valves by the combined use of Triton X-100 and cholate (TRI-COL) or N-cetylpyridinium (CPC) and subsequent nucleic acid removal by nuclease. Both treatments were effective in removing most cells and all the cytomembranes, with preservation of (1) endothelium basal membranes, (2) ECM texture, including the D-periodical interaction of small proteoglycans with normally D-banded collagen fibrils, and (3) mechanical properties of the treated valves. Ultrastructural features agreed with DNA, hexosamine, and uronic acid biochemical estimations. Calcification potential, assessed by a 6-week rat subdermal model, was significantly reduced by TRI-COL/nuclease treatment. This was not true for CPC only, despite better proteoglycan preservation, suggesting that nucleic acids also are involved in calcification onset. Human fibroblasts, used to repopulate TRI-COL samples, formed mono- or multilayers on surfaces, and groups of cells also were scattered within the valve leaflet framework. A biocompatible scaffolds of this kind holds promise for production of durable valve bioprostheses that will be able to undergo probable turnover and/or remodeling by repopulating recipient cells.     

An overview of tissue and whole organ decellularization processes

Biologic scaffold materials composed of extracellular matrix (ECM) are typically derived by processes that involve decellularization of tissues or organs. Preservation of the complex composition and three-dimensional ultrastructure of the ECM is highly desirable but it is recognized that all methods of decellularization result in disruption of the architecture and potential loss of surface structure and composition. Physical methods and chemical and biologic agents are used in combination to lyse cells, followed by rinsing to remove cell remnants. Effective decellularization methodology is dictated by factors such as tissue density and organization, geometric and biologic properties desired for the end product, and the targeted clinical application. Tissue decellularization with preservation of ECM integrity and bioactivity can be optimized by making educated decisions regarding the agents and techniques utilized during processing. An overview of decellularization methods, their effect upon resulting ECM structure and composition, and recently described perfusion techniques for whole organ decellularization techniques are presented herein.     

Decellularization of pericardial tissue and its impact on tensile viscoelasticity and glycosaminoglycan content

Bovine pericardium is a collagenous tissue commonly used as a natural biomaterial in the fabrication of cardiovascular devices. For tissue engineering purposes, this xenogeneic biomaterial must be decellularized to remove cellular antigens. With this in mind, three decellularization protocols were compared in terms of their effectiveness to extract cellular materials, their effect on glycosaminoglycan (GAG) content and, finally, their effect on tensile biomechanical behavior. The tissue decellularization was achieved by treatment with t-octyl phenoxy polyethoxy ethanol (Triton X-100), tridecyl polyethoxy ethanol (ATE) and alkaline treatment and subsequent treatment with nucleases (DNase/RNase). The quantified residual DNA content (3.0±0.4%, 4.4±0.6% and 5.6±0.7% for Triton X-100, ATE and alkaline treatment, respectively) and the absence of nuclear structures (hematoxylin and eosin staining) were indicators of effective cell removal. In the same way, it was found that the native tissue GAG content decreased to 61.6±0.6%, 62.7±1.1% and 88.6±0.2% for Triton X-100, ATE and alkaline treatment, respectively. In addition, an alteration in the tissue stress relaxation characteristics was observed after alkaline treatment. We can conclude that the three decellularization agents preserved the collagen structural network, anisotropy and the tensile modulus, tensile strength and maximum strain at failure of native tissue.     

The effect of detergents on the basement membrane complex of a biologic scaffold material

The basement membrane complex (BMC) is a critical component of the extracellular matrix (ECM) that supports and facilitates the growth of cells. This study investigates four detergents commonly used in the process of tissue decellularization and their effect upon the BMC. The BMC of porcine urinary bladder was subjected to 3% Triton-X 100, 8 mM 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate (CHAPS), 4% sodium deoxycholate or 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) for 24 h. The BMC structure for each treatment group was assessed by immunolabeling, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and second harmonic generation (SHG) imaging of the fiber network. The composition was assessed by quantification of dsDNA, glycosaminoglycans (GAG) and collagen content. The results showed that collagen fibers within samples treated with 1% SDS and 8 mM CHAPS were denatured, and the ECM contained fewer GAG compared with samples treated with 3% Triton X-100 or 4% sodium deoxycholate. Human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC) were seeded onto each BMC and cultured for 7 days. Cell–ECM interactions were investigated by immunolabeling for integrin β-1, SEM imaging and semi-quantitative assessment of cellular infiltration, phenotype and confluence. HMEC cultured on a BMC treated with 3% Triton X-100 were more confluent and had a normal phenotype compared with HMEC cultured on a BMC treated with 4% sodium deoxycholate, 8 mM CHAPS and 1% SDS. Both 8 mM CHAPS and 1% SDS damaged the BMC to the extent that seeded HMEC were able to infiltrate the damaged sub-basement membrane tissue, showed decreased confluence and an atypical phenotype. The choice of detergents used for tissue decellularization can have a marked effect upon the integrity of the BMC of the resultant bioscaffold.     

Comparison of different decellularization procedures of porcine heart valves

BACKGROUND: Tissue engineering of heart valves should avoid the disadvantages of conventional prostheses. In this study we tested different decellularization procedures for their potential of cell removal and their ability to preserve the matrix. METHODS: Specimens of porcine aortic and pulmonary roots were treated with either trypsin or sodium-dodecyl-sulfate (SDS) or Triton-X 100 and sodium-deoxycholate with a range of concentrations. Tissue samples were then processed for scanning electron microscopy and laser scanning microscopy. RESULTS: Trypsin achieved only incomplete decellularization and caused severe structural alterations of the matrix. In contrast SDS removed cells completely but caused strong structural alterations. Treatment with Triton-X100 and sodium-deoxycholate achieved both complete decellularization and preservation of the matrix structure. CONCLUSION: Techniques of decellularization are highly variable in efficiency and matrix preservation and was best achieved in our study with Triton-X100 and sodium deoxycholate.     

内皮祖细胞作为组织工程瓣膜内皮种子细胞的可行性研究

目的 探讨利用外周血内皮祖细胞（EPC8）制备组织工程瓣膜的可行性。方法 分离人外周血EPCs，采用酶-去垢剂法去除新鲜猪主动脉瓣细胞制备去细胞瓣膜支架，将培养的人外周血EPCs接种到去细胞瓣膜上。结果 经酶-去垢剂法去除新鲜猪主动脉瓣细胞后，细胞成分全部去除，纤维支架保存完好。去细胞处理后瓣膜无明显细胞毒性。人外周血EPCs与去细胞瓣膜共孵育2周后，细胞紧贴瓣膜表面生长形成一层连续的单细胞层，初步生物力学测定示去细胞前与再内皮化后，瓣膜力学特性无明显改变。结论 外周血分离培养扩增得到的EPCs能够再内皮化去细胞猪主动脉瓣构建组织工程瓣膜，外周血EPCs是组织工程瓣膜内皮种子细胞的新的来源。     

Qualitative and Quantitative Evaluation of a Novel Detergent-Based Method for Decellularization of Peripheral Nerves

Tissue engineering is an emerging strategy for the development of nerve substitutes for peripheral nerve repair. Especially decellularized peripheral nerve allografts are interesting alternatives to replace the gold standard autografts. In this study, a novel decellularization protocol was qualitatively and quantitatively evaluated by histological, biochemical, ultrastructural and mechanical methods and compared to the protocol described by Sondell et al. and a modified version of the protocol described by Hudson et al. Decellularization by the method described by Sondell et al. resulted in a reduction of the cell content, but was accompanied by a loss of essential extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules such as laminin and glycosaminoglycans. This decellularization also caused disruption of the endoneurial tubes and an increased stiffness of the nerves. Decellularization by the adapted method of Hudson et al. did not alter the ECM composition of the nerves, but an efficient cell removal could not be obtained. Finally, decellularization by the method developed in our lab by Roosens et al. led to a successful removal of nuclear material, while maintaining the nerve ultrastructure and ECM composition. In addition, the resulting ECM scaffold was found to be cytocompatible, allowing attachment and proliferation of adipose-derived stem cells. These results show that our decellularization combining Triton X-100, DNase, RNase and trypsin created a promising scaffold for peripheral nerve regeneration.     

大鼠单叶肝去细胞生物支架的制备与鉴定

目的通过灌注法制备大鼠单叶肝去细胞生物支架,并对其进行鉴定。方法健康成年SD大鼠20只,随机分为去细胞组和正常对照组,每组10只。去细胞组经门静脉灌胃针插管,恒温37℃依次灌注肝素化PBS溶液,1%Triton X-100(p H 7.5~8.0)及PBS溶液。HE、Masson染色及扫描电子显微镜观察组织学及超微结构改变;免疫荧光结合4’,6-二脒基-2-苯基吲哚(DAPI)观察2组胶原蛋白Ⅳ和Ⅰ、层黏连蛋白和纤维连接蛋白观察细胞外基质的主要成分;DNA定性和定量分析组织中残留DNA浓度和片段长度;聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯铸型观察肝脏内血管分布情况。结果 Triton X-100灌注4h左右即可制备单叶肝脏去细胞生物支架。在灌注过程中,肝内细胞和细胞碎片逐渐被清洗,最终变成半透明状。HE、Masson、免疫荧光染色及扫描电子显微镜显示,去细胞组肝生物支架较完整地保留了细胞外支架的成分,未见明显细胞及细胞核成分残留;去细胞组支架DNA残留量较正常对照组下降了97.32%,琼脂糖凝胶电泳未见明显的DNA条带。血管铸型标本显示,去细胞组血管分布与正常对照组相仿,其分支完整、清晰。结论运用Triton X-100灌注法所制备的大鼠单叶肝生物支架去细胞彻底,较完整地保留细胞外基质和血管网络结构,是一种简单易行且较为理想的制备实验用单叶肝生物支架的方法。     

Detergent-Based Decellularization of Bovine Carotid Arteries for Vascular Tissue Engineering

Vascular diseases are an increasing health issue, and common alloplastic, allogenic or autologous vascular grafts show frequent complications. The aim of this study is to develop an acellular, xenogenic bypass-graft from a bovine carotid artery (BAC) using detergent-based protocols. We compared decellularization with sodium desoxycholate (DOA), 3-[(3-Cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate (Chaps), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and Triton X100 and improved suitable methods by variation of concentration, buffer system, incubation time, temperature, rinsing, and flow rate. All processes were evaluated systematically based on cellular residues, biocompatibility, structural and mechanical integrity. Decellularization with SDS and Triton X100 was not sufficient for the removal of cellular components. We optimized protocols using 1% DOA and Chaps by a buffered system at 37 °C with extended decellularization and rinsing. Decellularization with DOA depleted DNA to 0.5 ± 0.1% and soluble proteins to 0.6 ± 0.2%. Using Chaps, DNA was reduced to 0.2 ± 0.2% and proteins to 0.6 ± 0.3%. The improved protocols eliminated RNA completely from the matrix, and no cytotoxic effects were detected. Mechanical and structural integrity of decellularized tissues was comparable to non-decellularized controls. Our method effectively removed cellular components from the extracellular matrix while preserving the structural and mechanical integrity of the tissue. Decellularized BACs could be a promising alternative for vascular replacement therapy.     

Extraction techniques for the decellularization of tissue engineered articular cartilage constructs

Several prior studies have been performed to determine the feasibility of tissue decellularization to create a non-immunogenic xenogenic tissue replacement for bladder, vasculature, heart valves, knee meniscus, temporomandibular joint disc, ligament, and tendon. However, limited work has been performed with articular cartilage, and no studies have examined the decellularization of tissue engineered constructs. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of different decellularization treatments on articular cartilage constructs, engineered using a scaffoldless approach, after 4 wks of culture, using a two-phased approach. In the first phase, five different treatments were examined: 1) 1% SDS, 2) 2% SDS, 3) 2% Tributyl Phosphate, 4) 2% Triton X-100, and 5) Hypotonic followed by hypertonic solution. These treatments were applied for either 1 h or 8 h, followed by a 2 h wash in PBS. Following this wash, the constructs were assessed histologically, biochemically for cellularity, GAG, and collagen content, and biomechanically for compressive and tensile properties. In phase II, the best treatment from phase I was applied for 1, 2, 4, 6, or 8 h in order to optimize the application time. Treatment with 2% SDS for 1 h or 2 h significantly reduced the DNA content of the tissue, while maintaining the biochemical and biomechanical properties. On the other hand, 2% SDS for 6 h or 8 h resulted in complete histological decellularization, with complete elimination of cell nuclei on histological staining, although GAG content and compressive properties were significantly decreased. Overall, 2% SDS, for 1 or 2 h, appeared to be the most effective agent for cartilage decellularization, as it resulted in decellularization while maintaining the functional properties. The results of this study are exciting as they indicate the feasibility of creating engineered cartilage that may be non-immunogenic as a replacement tissue.     

Mass transfer trends occurring in engineered ex vivo tissue scaffolds

In vivo the vasculature provides an effective delivery system for cellular nutrients; however, artificial scaffolds have no such mechanism, and the ensuing limitations in mass transfer result in limited regeneration. In these investigations, the regional mass transfer properties that occur through a model scaffold derived from the human umbilical vein (HUV) were assessed. Our aim was to define the heterogeneous behavior associated with these regional variations, and to establish if different decellularization technologies can modulate transport conditions to improve microenvironmental conditions that enhance cell integration. The effect of three decellularization methods [Triton X-100 (TX100), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and acetone/ethanol (ACE/EtOH)] on mass transfer, cellular migration, proliferation, and metabolic activity were assessed. Results show that regional variation in tissue structure and composition significantly affects both mass transfer and cell function. ACE/EtOH decellularization was shown to increase albumin mass flux through the intima and proximate-medial region (0-250 μm) when compared with sections decellularized with TX100 or SDS; although, mass flux remained constant over all regions of the full tissue thickness when using TX100. Scaffolds decellularized with TX100 were shown to promote cell migration up to 146% further relative to SDS decellularized samples. These results show that depending on scaffold derivation and expectations for cellular integration, specificities of the decellularization chemistry affect the scaffold molecular architecture resulting in variable effects on mass transfer and cellular response.     

不同方法制备脱细胞猪主动脉瓣膜支架的组织结构

背景：理想的脱细胞方法要求既能完全去除供体细胞,降低免疫原性,又能保留天然瓣膜的胶原纤维、弹力纤维等细胞外基质成分,以保持足够的机械强度。 目的：采用不同洗剂制备脱细胞猪主动脉瓣膜支架,对比其组织结构,探讨最为有效的脱细胞瓣膜支架制备方法。 方法：20个新鲜猪主动脉瓣膜随机分为新鲜对照组、去污剂组、酶消化组和去污剂-酶消化组,后3组分别使用Triton X-100、胰蛋白酶以及二者联合的方法制备脱细胞瓣膜支架,对比支架大体形态、苏木精-伊红染色、Mallory-Heidenhain染色和电镜下超微结构的不同。 结果与结论：经脱细胞处理后,去污剂组瓣叶柔软、光滑,苏木精-伊红染色少量核物质存留、纤维排列规整,Mallory-Heidenhain染色胶原纤维和弹性纤维相交错,电镜下呈波浪状排列、原纤维横纹清楚;酶消化组瓣叶局部塌陷,苏木精伊红染色细胞完全去除、纤维排列较紊乱,Mallory-Heidenhain染色胶原纤维和弹性纤维呈网状排列,电镜下纤维部分断裂、原纤维横纹存在;去污剂-酶消化组瓣叶柔软、光滑,苏木精伊红染色细胞完全去除、纤维完整,Mallory-Heidenhain染色胶原纤维和弹性纤维平行排列,电镜下纤维完好,但排列稀疏,原纤维横纹清晰。说明3种方法均可有效去除供体细胞,保持纤维结构相对完整,在完全清除供体细胞并保持纤维支架完整性方面,Triton X-100联合胰蛋白酶的方法更为有效。     

在体制备大鼠全肾去细胞支架的程序性分析

目的通过在体灌注Triton X-100、SDS溶液法制备大鼠全肾去细胞生物支架,并对支架制备过程中的关键步骤进行程序性检测、分析,为制备科学合理的实验用大鼠全肾去细胞生物支架提供基础。方法 SD大鼠40只,随机分为4组,每组10只。肝素化后直接切取肾脏作为对照组(control组);肝素PBS灌注组(H组);肝素PBS、Triton X-100灌注组(HT组);肝素PBS、Triton X-100、十二烷基硫酸钠(SDS)溶液灌注组(HTS组)。HE、Masson、PAS染色及透射电镜观察各组肾组织病理及超微结构改变,免疫荧光结合4,6-二脒基-2-苯基吲哚(DAPI)观察各组胶原蛋白Ⅳ(collagenⅣ)、层黏连蛋白(LN)、纤维连接蛋白(FN)、硫酸乙酰肝素蛋白多糖2(HSPG2)、弹性蛋白(elastin)及细胞核的表达情况,总DNA测定各组DNA残留浓度。结果 Triton X-100、SDS灌注6h左右制备大鼠肾脏去细胞生物支架。在灌注过程中,肾内细胞和细胞碎片逐渐被清洗,最终变成半透明状。HE、Masson、PAS染色及透射电镜显示连续分布、形态排列类似肾小球、肾小管轮廓结构的网状结构,基膜连续完整。免疫荧光结合DAPI染色结果表明,去细胞过程中细胞外基质中的重要蛋白collagen IV、LN、FN、HSPG2、elastin都较好的得到了保存,细胞核在灌注过程中逐渐减少,直至完全消失;最终残留组织的DNA为4.90μg/g。结论通过合适浓度和灌注比例的Triton X-100、SDS制备大鼠肾脏去细胞生物支架,并对其进行程序性分析,发现能有效清除大鼠肾内所有细胞成分,较完整的保留网络状肾及肾血管细胞外基质结构和成分,是一种简单易行且较为理想的制备实验用全肾生物支架的方法。     

Preservation of aortic root architecture and properties using a detergent-enzymatic perfusion protocol

Aortic valve degeneration and dysfunction is one of the leading causes for morbidity and mortality. The conventional heart-valve prostheses have significant limitations with either life-long anticoagulation therapeutic associated bleeding complications (mechanical valves) or limited durability (biological valves). Tissue engineered valve replacement recently showed encouraging results, but the unpredictable outcome of tissue degeneration is likely associated to the extensive tissue processing methods. We believe that optimized decellularization procedures may provide aortic valve/root grafts improved durability. We present an improved/innovative decellularization approach using a detergent-enzymatic perfusion method, which is both quicker and has less exposure of matrix degenerating detergents, compared to previous protocols. The obtained graft was characterized for its architecture, extracellular matrix proteins, mechanical and immunological properties. We further analyzed the engineered aortic root for biocompatibility by cell adhesion and viability in vitro and heterotopic implantation in vivo. The developed decellularization protocol was substantially reduced in processing time whilst maintaining tissue integrity. Furthermore, the decellularized aortic root remained bioactive without eliciting any adverse immunological reaction. Cell adhesion and viability demonstrated the scaffold's biocompatibility. Our optimized decellularization protocol may be useful to develop the next generation of clinical valve prosthesis with a focus on improved mechanical properties and durability.     

Effectiveness of three extraction techniques in the development of a decellularized bone-anterior cruciate ligament-bone graft

In this study, porcine bone-anterior cruciate ligament-bone (B-ACL-B) grafts were decellularized using one of three protocols incorporating surfactants lauryl sulfate (SDS), Triton X-100, and/or an organic solvent (tributyl phosphate (TnBP)). The effectiveness of Triton-SDS, Triton-Triton or Triton-TnBP treatments in removing cellular materials was determined and possible changes in biochemical composition and mechanical properties due to each treatment were investigated. Treatment with Triton-SDS was most effective at removing cell nuclei and intracellular protein (vimentin) from the ACL but affected both the collagen and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) components of the extracellular matrix while increasing the tensile stiffness of the ligament. Triton-Triton was the least effective of the three treatments in terms of cellular extraction, but did not significantly change the mechanical and biochemical properties of the ACL. Triton-TnBP matched the level of decellularization achieved by Triton-SDS in terms of visible cell nuclei; however, the extraction of intracellular vimentin was less consistent. TnBP treatment also slightly decreased the collagen content of the ACL but did not alter its mechanical properties. Overall, all three decellularization treatments maintained adequate mechanical and biochemical properties of B-ACL-B grafts to justify the further investigation of all three decellularization protocols. The selection of a superior treatment will depend on future studies of the propensity of treated tissues for repopulation by host ACL fibroblasts and, ultimately, on any immunogenic and/or remodeling host response induced in vivo.     

灌注法制备离体大鼠心脏脱细胞基质

目的 探索制备离体大鼠心脏脱细胞生物支架材料的新方法,为心脏组织工程研究提供三维立体天然支架.方法 取30只成年SD大鼠心脏,运用冻融加化学萃取的组织工程学方法 (胰蛋白酶、十二烷基硫酸钠和曲拉通X-100)处理离体大鼠心脏,同时观察心脏大体形态及颜色变化,并对脱细胞支架进行基因组DNA分析;HE染色,免疫荧光法,扫描和透射电镜进一步检测鉴定脱细胞支架的生物学特征.结果 心脏脱细胞支架外观透明,包膜完整,维持心脏三维立体结构,肉眼可见心脏内脉管系统;脱细胞支架DNA残留量不及对照组的3%;HE染色、扫描和透射电镜结果 显示,心脏脱细胞生物支架去细胞彻底,细胞外基质网状结构保留完整;免疫荧光结果 表明,胶原、弹性蛋白等细胞外支架成分保留较完整,未见明显细胞核成分残留.结论 运用冻融加化学萃取法所制备的离体心脏脱细胞生物支架去细胞彻底,细胞外基质保留较完整,是较为理想的心脏三维立体生物支架材料.