Alcohol consumption and metabolic syndrome: does the type of beverage matter?

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between total and beverage-specific alcohol consumption and the prevalence odds of metabolic syndrome (MS). RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Using a cross-sectional design, we studied 4510 white participants of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Family Heart Study. We used generalized estimating equations adjusting for age, education, risk group, smoking, physical activity, diabetes mellitus, coronary heart disease, energy intake, energy from fat, fruits, and vegetables, dietary cholesterol, dietary fiber, and use of multivitamins to estimate the prevalence odds of MS by alcohol intake. RESULTS: Compared with never-drinkers, multivariate odds ratios (95% confidence interval) for MS were 1.12 (0.85 to 1.49), 0.68 (0.36 to 1.28), 0.72 (0.50 to 1.03), 0.66 (0.44 to 0.99), and 0.80 (0.55 to 1.16) among men who were former drinkers and who were current drinkers of 0.1 to 2.5, 2.6 to 12.0, 12.1 to 24.0, and >24.0 g/d of alcohol, respectively (p for linear trend 0.018). Corresponding values for women were 0.86 (0.69 to 1.09), 0.80 (0.43 to 1.34), 0.47 (0.33 to 0.66), 0.47 (0.30 to 0.74), and 0.39 (0.21 to 0.74), respectively (p for trend < 0.0001). The reduced prevalence odds of MS was observed across all beverage types: compared with never-drinkers, multivariate adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence interval) of MS were 0.32 (0.14 to 0.73), 0.42 (0.23 to 0.77), 0.57 (0.30 to 1.09), and 0.56 (0.36 to 0.88) for subjects who consumed >7 drinks/wk of wine only, beer only, spirits only, and more than one type of beverage, respectively. DISCUSSION: Our data indicate that alcohol consumption is associated with a lower prevalence of MS irrespective of the type of beverage consumed. Prospective studies are needed to confirm these findings and to assess the influence of drinking patterns on the alcohol-MS association.     

Are metabolic risk factors one unified syndrome? Modeling the structure of the metabolic syndrome X

The metabolic syndrome, manifested by insulin resistance, obesity, dyslipidemia, and hypertension, is conceived to increase the risk for coronary heart disease and type II diabetes. Several studies have used factor analysis to explore its underlying structure among related risk variables but reported different results. Taking a hypothesis-testing approach, this study used confirmatory factor analysis to specify and test the factor structure of the metabolic syndrome. A hierarchical four-factor model, with an overarching metabolic syndrome factor uniting the insulin resistance, obesity, lipid, and blood pressure factors, was proposed and tested with 847 men who participated in the Normative Aging Study between 1987 and 1991. Simultaneous multi-group analyses were also conducted to test the stability of the proposed model across younger and older participants and across individuals with and without cardiovascular disease. The findings demonstrated that the proposed structure was well supported (comparative fit index = 0.97, root mean square error approximation = 0.06) and stable across subgroups. The metabolic syndrome was represented primarily by the insulin resistance and obesity factors, followed by the lipid factor, and, to a lesser extent, the blood pressure factor. This study provides an empirical foundation for conceptualizing and measuring the metabolic syndrome that unites four related components (insulin resistance, obesity, lipids, and blood pressure).     

Cyanamide or disulfiram in the treatment of adolescent alcohol misusers?

The Randomised Controlled Trial by Niederhofer et al.(2003)describing the successful use of cyanamide in a group of alcohol-misusingadolescents, is further and convincing evidence of the effectivenessof deterrent or antagonist medication in the management of sometypes of substance     

Is alcohol consumption a cofactor in the development of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome?

Excessive alcohol (EtOH) consumption and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) are two major public health problems in the United States. Overwhelming evidence is showing that heavy EtOH ingestion broadly suppresses the various arms of immune response, seriously impairing the body's normal host defense to invading microbes and tumorigenesis. The onset of clinical symptoms of AIDS (low CD4⁺ T cells count, opportunistic infections, and tumors) is quite variable among HIV' individuals with a mean incubation time 3–10 years following serocon version. Because of the deleterious effects of chronic EtOH consumption on Cyokine release, immune response, host defense, nutritional status, and oxidative stress, it has been believed to be a possible cofactor that could enhance the host's susceptibility to infections, and subsequently increase the rate of AIDS development. The purpose of this review is to present evidence indicating clinical disorders during EtOH ingestion in murine AIDS. These EtOH-induced abnormalities may promote a more rapid development of AIDS in HIV-infected individuals.     

Does the built environment relate to the metabolic syndrome in adolescents?

This article examines the influence of the neighborhood environment on blood profiles, percent body fat, blood pressure, and the metabolic syndrome (MetS) in adolescents. One hundred and eighty-eight adolescents (10–16 yr) agreed to have a fasting blood sample drawn in addition to measures of weight, height, percent fat, and blood pressure. A MetS cluster score was derived by calculating the sum of the sample-specific z-scores from the percent body fat, fasting glucose, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (negative), triglyceride, and systolic blood pressure. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology was used to calculate the distance to and density of built environmental features. Spearman correlation was used to identify significant (p<0.05) relationships between the built environment and the MetS. Statistically significant correlations were added to linear regression models, adjusted for pubertal status, age, and sex. Multivariate linear regression models revealed significant associations between an increased distance to convenience stores and the MetS. The results of this study suggest a role for the built environment in the development of the MetS.     

Non-alcoholic fatty liver: another feature of the metabolic syndrome?

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Hepatic steatosis and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) have been associated with obesity, non insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and hyperlipidemia. The present study was designed in order to evaluate whether patients with steatosis/NASH presented common features with the metabolic syndrome. METHODS: In 30 patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver the prevalence of hypertension and diabetes; the glucose/insulin profile, lipid profile, and serum leptin were evaluated and correlated with body composition and energy expenditure, assessed by bioimpedance spectroscopy and indirect calorimetry, respectively. Results were compared with a group of eight controls. RESULTS: Obesity was present in 80% of patients, hypertension in 50% and non insulin dependent diabetes in 33%. Glucose metabolism was altered in 69%, with elevated insulin in 14 patients. Serum leptin, higher in women, was increased in patients: 33.9 +/- 38.9 vs 9.6 +/- 6.9 ng/ml, P< 0.05. There was a correlation between insulin and leptin, both of which correlated with body mass index, fat mass and percentage of body fat. Dyslipidaemia was found in 80% of patients: 45% presented low high density lipoproteins cholesterol, 58% high low density lipoproteins and 38% elevated very low density lipoproteins. CONCLUSIONS: There is a strong association between nonalcoholic fatty liver and features of the metabolic syndrome, suggesting a simultaneous insulin resistance and decreased sensitivity to leptin.     

Invited commentary: insulin resistance syndrome? Syndrome X? Multiple metabolic syndrome? A syndrome at all? Factor analysis reveals patterns in the fabric of correlated metabolic risk factors

Factor analysis has emerged as a useful method for understanding patterns underlying the co-occurrence of metabolic risk factors for both type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis--often referred to as "insulin resistance syndrome." In factor analysis of data on 322 healthy elderly people from the Cardiovascular Health Study, Sakkinen et al. (Am J Epidemiol 2000;152:897-907) confirmed findings from a dozen prior studies that as many as four distinct physiologic domains comprise the syndrome, with a unifying role for markers of insulin resistance. With the addition of markers of hemostasis and inflammation, they also found that impaired fibrinolysis and endothelial dysfunction are central features of the syndrome, while inflammation is only weakly linked to insulin resistance through associations with obesity.     

Conjugated linoleic acid: a functional nutrient in the different pathophysiological components of the metabolic syndrome?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Much attention has focused on the therapeutic potential of conjugated linoleic acid with the most abundant isomers being cis-9,trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid and trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid. Initial animal studies associated conjugated linoleic acid with beneficial health properties, such as reducing the risk of cancer, diabetes, atherosclerosis, inflammation and obesity. This review has appraised the evidence in relation to the effect of conjugated linoleic acid on components of the metabolic syndrome (clinically or experimentally), in particular, obesity, insulin resistance, atherosclerosis and inflammation. RECENT FINDINGS: More recent human conjugated linoleic acid supplementation studies have often shown conflicting and less convincing health benefits. The marked variation between studies may reflect the isomer-specific effect of the individual conjugated linoleic acid isomers, which can often have opposing effects. Detrimental effects have been observed in some studies, in particular after supplementation with the trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid isomer. SUMMARY: Further studies and long-term clinical trials will be required to determine the efficacy and safety of conjugated linoleic acid isomers before conjugated linoleic acid could be considered as a functional nutrient in humans.     

Fasting or post-challenge blood glucose values for detection of glucose intolerance in screening for metabolic syndrome?

INTRODUCTION: The normal-pathological threshold of fasting blood glucose values was modified by the new WHO diagnostic criteria (1999) and, in addition, impaired fasting glucose (IFG) was introduced as a new clinical entity. Nevertheless, the 2-h post-glucose challenge criteria and the concept of the impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) remained unchanged. There is no unequivocal agreement whether new fasting or unchanged post-challenge blood glucose criteria should be used for classification of glucose intolerance. AIMS: To assess the clinical-laboratory characteristics of metabolic syndrome a screening procedure was performed in hypertensive or obese subjects registered within primary health care and the reliability of the new fasting blood glucose criteria was analysed. PATIENTS AND METHODS: For inclusion, subjects of both sexes aged from 20 to 65 years exhibited at least one of the following clinical characteristics: hypertension (ongoing antihypertensive treatment or raised (> or = 140/90 mmHg) actual blood pressure), abnormal (> 30.0 kg/m2) body mass index [BMI] or elevated waist-hip ratio (> 0.85 in women, > 0.90 in men). Subjects with known diabetes were not involved. An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) with 75 g glucose was performed in each subject. Subjects with complete clinical and laboratory findings were statistically analysed (n = 944; women/men: 545/399; age: 46.1 +/- 7.3 years; BMI 32.2 +/- 5.4 kg/m2; waist-hip ratio 0.90 +/- 0.09; x +/- SD). RESULTS: In the total cohort newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus (based on the 120 min post-challenge glucose values) was found in 87 subjects (9.2%), IGT was detected in 136 cases (14.4%) while normal glucose tolerance was documented in 721 subjects (76.4%). Using fasting blood glucose values for classification, diabetes mellitus was detected in 79 subjects (8.4%), IFG was found in 124 cases (13.1%) while 741 subjects (78.5%) had normal glucose tolerance. Impaired glucoregulation (IGT + IFG) was found in 223 subjects (IGT alone 99 cases [44.4%], IFG alone 87 cases [39.0%], IGT and IFG in combination 37 cases [16.6%]). The sensitivity and specificity of fasting blood glucose criteria for detecting diabetes were 63.2% and 97.1%, respectively, while those for detecting glucose intolerance (IFG and diabetes as well as IGT and diabetes) were 52.9% and 88.2%, respectively. Clinical characteristics of subjects with abnormal post-challenge but normal fasting blood glucose values (n = 105) did not differ significantly from those of subjects with normal post-challenge but abnormal fasting blood glucose values (n = 85) (age: 46.7 +/- 6.9 years vs 46.7 +/- 6.1 years; BMI: 33.1 +/- 5.4 kg/m2 vs 32.3 +/- 4.5 kg/m2; waist-hip ratio: 0.91 +/- 0.09 vs 0.92 +/- 0.07; p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: OGTT and 2-h post-glucose challenge criteria should be used for the diagnosis of different categories of glucose intolerance in screening for metabolic syndrome.     

Does a diagnosis of metabolic syndrome have value in clinical practice?

"The metabolic syndrome" is the name for a clustering of risk factors for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes that are of metabolic origin. These risk factors consist of atherogenic dyslipidemia, elevated blood pressure, elevated plasma glucose, a prothrombotic state, and a proinflammatory state. There are 2 major, interacting causes of the metabolic syndrome-obesity and endogenous metabolic susceptibility. The latter typically is manifested by insulin resistance. The metabolic syndrome is accompanied by a 2-fold increase in the risk of cardiovascular disease and a 5-fold increase in the risk of type 2 diabetes. A clinical diagnosis of the metabolic syndrome is useful because it affects therapeutic strategy in patients at higher risk. However, there are 2 views about the best therapeutic strategy for patients with the metabolic syndrome. One view holds that each of the metabolic risk factors should be singled out and treated separately. The other view holds that greater emphasis should be given to implementing therapies that will reduce all of the risk factors simultaneously. The latter approach emphasizes lifestyle therapies (weight reduction and increased exercise), which target all of the risk factors. This approach is also the foundation of other therapies for targeting multiple risk factors together by striking at the underlying causes, as in the development of drugs to promote weight reduction and to reduce insulin resistance. Treating the underlying causes does not rule out the management of individual risk factors, but it will add strength to the control of multiple risk factors.     

Contribution of Swedish moist snuff to the metabolic syndrome: a wolf in sheep's clothing?

AIM: Combined effects of genetic and environmental factors underlie the clustering of cardiovascular risk factors in the metabolic syndrome (MetSy). The aim was to investigate associations between several lifestyle factors and MetSy, with a focus on the possible role of smokeless tobacco in the form of Swedish moist snuff (snus). METHODS: A population-based longitudinal cohort study within the V?sterbotten Intervention Programme in Northern Sweden. All inhabitants at the ages of 30, 40, 50, and 60 are invited to participate in a health survey that includes a questionnaire on psychosocial conditions and lifestyle and measurement of biological variables. Individuals examined in 1990-94 (n = 24,230) and who also returned for follow-up after 10 years were included (total of 16,492 individuals: 46.6% men and 53.4% women). Regression analyses were performed. MetSy was the outcome and analyses were adjusted for age, sex, alcohol abuse, and family history of CVD and diabetes. RESULTS: Ten-year development of MetSy was associated with high-dose consumption of snus at baseline (OR 1.6 [95% CI 1.26-2.15]), low education (2.2 [1.92-2.63]), physical inactivity (1.5 [1.22-1.73]) and former smoking (1.2 [1.06-1.38]). Snus was associated with separate components of MetSy, including triglycerides (1.6, 1.30-1.95), obesity (1.7 [1.36-2.18]) but not hypertension, dysglycemia and low HDL cholesterol. CONCLUSIONS: MetSy is independently associated with high consumption of snus, even when controlling for smoking status. The finding is of public health interest in societies with widespread use of snus. More research is needed to better understand the mechanisms underlying this effect.     

Are there specific treatments for the metabolic syndrome?

The concept of the metabolic syndrome, although controversial, continues to gain acceptance. Whereas each risk factor of the metabolic syndrome (visceral obesity, atherogenetic dyslipidemia, elevated blood pressure, and dysglycemia) can be dealt with individually, the recommended initial therapeutic approach is to focus on reversing its root causes of atherogenetic diet, sedentary lifestyle, and overweight or obesity. No single diet is currently recommended for patients with the metabolic syndrome, although epidemiologic evidence suggests a lower prevalence of the metabolic syndrome associated with dietary patterns rich in fruit, vegetables, whole grains, dairy products, and unsaturated fats. We conducted a literature search to identify clinical trials specifically dealing with the resolution of the metabolic syndrome by lifestyle, drugs, or obesity surgery. Criteria used for study selection were English language, randomized trials with a placebo or control group (except for surgery), a follow-up lasting>or=6 mo, and a time frame of 5 y. We identified 3 studies based on lifestyle interventions, 5 studies based on drug therapy, and 3 studies based on laparoscopic weight-reduction surgery The striking resolution of the metabolic syndrome with weight-reduction surgery (93%) as compared with lifestyle (25%) and drugs (19%) strongly suggests that obesity is the driving force for the occurrence of this condition. Although there is no "all-inclusive" diet yet, it seems plausible that a Mediterranean-style diet has most of the desired attributes, including a lower content of refined carbohydrates, a high content of fiber, a moderate content of fat (mostly unsaturated), and a moderate-to-high content of vegetable proteins.     

Is non alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) part of the metabolic syndrome?

The metabolic syndrome is one of the most common disease of our era that may cause numerous complications. There are some studies showing the need to take attention to the hepatic manifestation of the metabolic syndrome besides its already well-known consequences. In most of the cases there are histopathological evidences for the presence of fatty liver and mainly non alcoholic steatohepatitis. These conditions can lead to hepatic cirrhosis, hepatic failure or even to hepatocellular carcinoma. The risk of these consequences is the greater the more severe the metabolic syndrome is and the more components of it are included. All these emphasise the importance of examining the hepathological status of the patients suffering from the metabolic syndrome.     

Obesity: a main factor of metabolic syndrome?

The metabolic syndrome (MS) is a common metabolic disorder that has been recently related to the increasing prevalence of obesity. The disorder is defined in various ways, but in the near future a new definition(s) will be applicable worldwide. The pathophysiology has been largely attributed, in the past years, to insulin-resistance, even if several epidemiological and pathophysiological data are attractive to indicate visceral obesity as a main factor in the occurrence of the MS, promoting new definitions and re-evaluation of the pathogenesis of this syndrome. In this review, we have analyzed the role of visceral obesity in the new definition of the MS such as the pathophysiological role of the abnormal fat distribution in the occurrence of this syndrome. In view of this, relationships between visceral obesity, free fatty acids, dyslipidaemia and insulin-resistance have been reported. In addition, the effects of some adipocytokines and other proinflammatory factors produced by fat accumulation on the appearance of the MS have been also emphasized. Finally, according to recommendations of several international societies, the role of the life-style change and of the weight loss in the prevention and treatment both of obesity and of other associated risk factors has been analyzed.