General anesthesia for cesarean section in a Singapore maternity hospital: a retrospective survey

We conducted a retrospective study of all cases of cesarean section at the KK Women's and Children's Hospital over a one-year period from September 1, 2002 to August 31, 2003, with the aim of evaluating current anesthetic practice. These cases were identified using hospital databases and relevant data was extracted from clinical notes. There were 14244 deliveries during the study period with a cesarean section rate of 25.2% (3583 cases). Of these, 20.4% (732 cases) were performed under general anesthesia. Maternal request was the chief reason for general anesthesia, especially among elective cases. Regional block failure accounted for 16% of the general anesthesia cases performed or 4.0% of the total regional techniques attempted. Regional block failure rate was highest for emergency cases in which an indwelling labor epidural catheter was used to provide surgical anesthesia via a bolus top-up. General anesthesia still has a definite place for cesarean delivery despite the predominant use of regional techniques in our institution.     

腰-硬联合麻醉对剖宫产产妇呼吸参数的影响

目的：探讨腰-硬联合麻醉对剖宫产产妇呼吸功能的影响。方法：30例美国麻醉医师学会（ASA）Ⅰ～Ⅱ单胎足月孕妇,在腰-硬联合麻醉下行剖宫产术,用面罩紧闭法测量孕妇在人室后平卧位（T1）,麻醉完成后仰卧即刻（T1）、5rain（T2）、10min（T3）,胎儿取出后1min（T4）、5min（T5）和10min（T6）时的呼吸频率（RR）、潮气量（VT）、分钟通气量（VE）、呼气末二氧化碳分压（PETCO2）、1秒率（V1．0）、呼吸比（E：I）等参数的变化。结果：与基础值（T0）相比较,PETCO2于各个观察时间点均明显降低（P〈0．01）;T1、T2、T6时VE明显降低;T1时的VT亦降低（P〈0．05）。结论：腰-硬联合麻醉能使剖宫产产妇的VE、PETCO2明显降低,缓解产妇的过度通气,降低其氧耗量,且不会对产妇呼吸功能产生不利影响。     

0.75%重比重布比卡因剖宫产腰硬联合麻醉的应用

目的探讨重比重布比卡因腰硬联合麻醉在剖宫产麻醉中的应用。方法选择120例剖宫产手术的产妇,ASAI-Ⅱ,行L2—3或L3—4间隙穿刺,穿刺成功后注入0.75%布比卡因重比重液1~2mL(7.5~15mg),控制麻醉平面后,测血压、脉搏、呼吸。结果麻醉起效时间为1~3min,注药后(6.3±2.2)min阻滞完善。腰骶部阻滞完善,对产妇血压的影响不超过其基础值的20%,脉搏、呼吸基本无明显影响,术后并发症少,新生儿Apgar评分(18.8±0.7)分。结论腰硬联合麻醉起效快、效果确切、肌松良好、对胎儿循环干扰小、并发症少。     

Alagille syndrome and pregnancy: anesthetic management for cesarean section

A 34-year-old multiparous woman with a breech presentation, intrauterine growth restriction and premature rupture of membranes was transferred to our referral unit at 33 weeks of gestation. She was diagnosed with Alagille syndrome soon after birth because of cholestasis and pruritus. Her condition was later complicated by esophageal varices, treated with propranolol, thrombocytopenia, and insulin-dependent diabetes. She had characteristic facies, posterior embryotoxon, “butterfly” vertebrae but had no cardiac or renal abnormalities. Due to the early onset of spontaneous labor, emergency cesarean section under general anesthesia was performed 48 h after admission. This is the first case describing anesthetic care during delivery in a patient with Alagille syndrome. We discuss the anesthetic implications of the syndrome, emphasizing problems associated with portal hypertension and cholestasis, thrombocytopenia and cardiac abnormalities such as pulmonary artery stenosis.     

不同麻醉方式在肝炎后肝硬化孕妇剖宫产术中临床效果的比较

目的探讨和比较肝炎后肝硬化孕妇剖宫产术中全身麻醉与单次腰麻的临床效果。方法收集2010年6月至2016年6月首都医科大学附属北京地坛医院住院分娩的肝炎后肝硬化孕妇相关资料35例,肝硬化代偿期26例,失代偿期9例,年龄24~45岁,体重55~98kg,ASAⅡ或Ⅲ级。麻醉方式包括全身麻醉和单次腰麻,PLT低于50×109/L为全身麻醉(A组,n=15),静注丙泊酚1.5mg/kg,胎儿取出断脐后,行气管插管,术中持续泵入瑞芬太尼0.2μg·kg~(-1)·min~(-1)和TCI丙泊酚维持麻醉至手术结束;PLT高于50×10~9/L为单次腰麻(B组,n=20),选左侧卧位经L3~4间隙穿刺,见脑脊液后注入罗哌卡因10~15mg,10s注完。比较两组孕妇术前基本情况、术中出血量、手术时间、Apgar评分及不同麻醉方式下机体肝功、凝血功能等指标变化。非条件Logistic回归模型分析术后肝功能变化的影响因素。结果 A、B两组术中出血量、手术时间、Apgar评分、术后住院天数等情况差异无统计学意义。与术前比较,A组白蛋白(ALB)明显升高(P0.05);B组孕妇丙氨酸氨基转移酶(ALT)和天门冬氨酸氨基转移酶(AST)明显升高(P0.01)。非条件Logistic回归分析显示,麻醉方式是术后总胆红素(TBIL)升高的危险因素(OR=12.04,95%CI 1.14~127.45),单次腰麻后TBIL升高的可能性明显大于全身麻醉。结论肝炎后肝硬化孕妇剖宫产术中,单次腰麻对肝功能的影响可能较全身麻醉显著。     

Supreme喉罩联合七氟醚、丙泊酚顺序全麻在剖宫产中的应用

目的 对Supreme喉罩联合七氟醚、丙泊酚顺序全麻在剖宫产中的应用进行临床观察.方法 60例ASA Ⅰ～Ⅱ级择期剖宫产的足月初产妇采用完全随机分为两组,每组30例,A组采用Supreme喉罩联合七氟醚、丙泊酚顺序全麻,吸入6%～8%七氟醚加5 L/min～8 L/min氧诱导,置入Supreme喉罩,以2%～3%七氟醚加2 L/min～3 L/min氧维持麻醉至胎儿娩出,停七氟醚,改用丙泊酚、瑞芬太尼联合静脉泵注;B组采用腰硬联合麻醉,取L2-3或L3-4穿刺,蛛网膜下腔给予0.5%罗哌卡因9 mg～12 mg.两组产妇若出现术中低血压,经快速补液无法改善者予麻黄素纠正.观察两组产妇麻醉开始至手术开始时间,失血量,术中低血压发生率,麻黄素使用病例数,麻醉相关并发症发生率及出生后即刻、5 min、10 min的新生儿Apgar评分.结果 A组麻醉开始至手术开始时间较B组短[(5.2±1.7)min vs(15.8±5.6)min,P＜0.05];A组术中低血压发生率、麻黄碱使用率及麻酢相关并发症发生率分别为0.00%、0.00%、3.33%,分别低于B组的40.00%、33.33%、23.33%,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);两组失血量及新生儿Apgar评分差异均无统计学意义.结论 Supreme喉罩联合七氟醚、丙泊酚顺序全麻的主要优势在于吸入适当浓度的七氟醚对胎儿影响小,胎儿娩出后改用静脉麻醉减少了七氟醚对宫缩的影响,不增加失血量,术中低血压发生率低,且Supreme喉罩无需使用肌松剂,能有效防止返流、误吸,术后恢复快,是一种可安全应用于剖宫产于术的全身麻醉方法.     

妊娠合并重症肝炎剖宫产术的麻醉处理

目的分析晚期妊娠合并重症肝炎行剖宫产术围麻醉期的麻醉处理。方法我院1990～2004年合并重症肝炎产妇行剖宫产术12例,ASAⅢ～Ⅳ级,按麻醉方式分为两组:全身麻醉组(G组,6例),硬膜外麻醉组(E组,6例)。收集资料包括两组产妇术前一般情况;术中出血量、尿量、输液量、手术时间、胎儿娩出时间;新生儿Apgar评分;两组手术前后肝功能指标的变化;两组凝血物质使用及凝血功能的比较。术后母婴恢复情况。结果两组产妇术前的凝血功能比较,G组Plt值明显小于E组(P<0.05),PT、APTT则大于E组(P<0.05)。两组凝血物质使用无显著性差异。术中出血量、尿量、输液量、手术时间、胎儿娩出时间无显著性差异。两组新生儿Apgar评分无显著性差异。两组术前、术后肝功能指标无显著性差异。结论应根据患者的凝血功能选择麻醉方式。麻醉处理的要点在于维持呼吸循环的稳定,改善凝血功能及尽量应用对肝功能损害少的药物。     

布比卡因复合右美托咪定在剖宫产术蛛网膜下腔麻醉中的安全性和有效性

目的探讨布比卡因复合右美托咪定在剖宫产术蛛网膜下腔麻醉(腰麻)的安全性和有效性。方法择期腰麻下行剖宫产术的产妇150例,年龄20～35岁,体重60～85 kg,随机分为三组,B组:0.5%布比卡因9 mg;FB组:0.5%布比卡因7.5 mg+芬太尼20μg;DB组:0.5%布比卡因7.5 mg+右美托咪定5μg。记录产妇感觉和运动阻滞起效时间、持续时间,以及低血压、寒战、恶心呕吐等不良反应发生情况。结果 B组、FB组和DB组感觉阻滞起效时间分别为(14.8±2.9)s、(15.5±2.2)s和(12.3±1.6)s,DB组明显短于B组和FB组,B组明显短于FB组(P0.05)。B组、FB组和DB组感觉阻滞持续时间分别为(122.3±23.5)min、(108.7±21.4)min和(147.3±18.0)min,DB组明显长于B组和FB组,B组明显长于FB组(P0.05)。B组、FB组和DB组运动阻滞起效时间分别为(3.4±1.1)min、(3.2±0.8)min和(2.8±0.7)min,DB组明显短于B组和FB组(P0.05)。B组、FB组和DB组运动阻滞持续时间分别为(162.1±24.5)min、(141.3±21.9)min和(188.5±21.7)min,DB组明显长于B组和FB组,B组明显长于FB组(P0.05)。DB组产妇低血压、寒战、术中及术后恶心呕吐的发生率均明显低于B组(P0.05),且DB组低血压发生率明显低于FB组(P0.05)。结论剖宫产术中布比卡因复合右美托咪定的腰麻效果优于复合芬太尼,且安全性更高。     

Combined spinal-epidural anesthesia for cesarean section; needle-through-needle approach

Purpose The Portex “Spinal/Epidural Set” is designed for combined spinal-epidural (CSE) anesthesia by the needle-through-needle approach. We evaluated the technical and clinical usefulness of CSE with this needle set, and also isobaric tetracaine, for cesarean section. Methods Thirty patients for cesarean section were included. In the left decubitus position, a 16-gauge epidural needle was introduced by the loss-of-resistance method into the lumbar intervertebral space. A 26-gauge spinal needle was threaded through the epidural needle into the subarachnoid space. Tetracaine dissolved in saline was injected. A 17-gauge catheter was advanced into the epidural space. The analgesic level was checked by the pin-prick method. Results The insertion in the first attempt was successful in 21 cases (70%) of the patients, and difficulty in insertion was not experienced. Inadvertent dural puncture occurred in one case, but no accidental subarachnoid catheterization was observed. Spinal anesthesia with tetracaine (11.1±0.5 mg) reached the level of Th₆ on average, with a relatively wide range. Five cases (13%) were supplemented by epidural anesthesia. No postspinal headache was noted. Conclusion CSE technique by the needle-through-needle approach is easy to handle, and provides a speedy, reliable, and flexible analgesia as well as postoperative pain relief for patients undergoing cesarean section.     

Spinal anesthesia using a continuous spinal catheter for cesarean section in a parturient with prior surgical correction of scoliosis

This case report demonstrates the successful anesthetic management of cesarean section for a 29-year-old primiparous parturient with a past history of a scoliosis operation at 13 years of age. An Isola hook and screw-rod system had been implanted as posterior spinal instrumentation at the level of T3-L3. We titrated hyperbaric bupivacaine 7 mg combined with fentanyl 15 μg through a continuous spinal catheter, placed with a catheter-over-needle technique in order to avoid unintentional wide spread of anesthetic agents. The anesthetic level was T4 at the start of the operation. Her surgery was carried out without any problems. Headache, as a dural tap-related complication, was not observed. Spinal anesthesia with the titration of anesthetic agents for cesarean section is considered to be one of the choices for a parturient who has had spinal instrumentation.     

Dexmedetomidine for awake fiberoptic intubation in a parturient with spinal muscular atrophy type III for cesarean delivery

Spinal muscular atrophy in pregnancy is rare and poses multiple problems for the anesthesiologist. The effects of dexmedetomidine on a parturient with spinal muscular atrophy have not previously been reported. There are also no in vivo data on placental transfer of dexmedetomidine and its effects on a human neonate. We report the hemodynamic, respiratory and sedative effects of dexmedetomidine on a parturient and neonate when used for awake fiberoptic intubation before cesarean section. A 35-year-old, gravida 4 para 0 aborta 3, 41-kg parturient at 35 weeks of gestation with spinal muscular atrophy presented for cesarean section. Dexmedetomidine was administered intravenously, total dose 1.84 μg/kg over 38 minutes, followed by fiberoptic endotracheal intubation. Dexmedetomidine was then discontinued and general anesthesia was induced. The baby was delivered 68 minutes after the dexmedetomidine infusion was discontinued at which time blood samples were obtained for measurement of dexmedetomidine. During administration of dexmedetomidine, maternal heart rate, blood pressure and oxygen saturation remained stable. Apgar scores at 1 and 5 min were 6 and 8. The fetal concentration of dexmedetomidine (540 pg/mL) indicates significant placental transfer, but significant adverse neonatal effects were not observed. Dexmedetomidine alone provided adequate sedation for awake intubation without respiratory compromise in this patient.     

Sevoflurane anesthesia for elective cesarean section

Sevoflurane anesthesia was given to sixteen women who had been scheduled for elective cesarean section. The maternal systolic blood pressure significantly decreased during the anesthesia induction. Both the anesthesia induction and emergence were smooth and rapid. These findings were supported partially by the pharmacokinetic analysis of sevoflurane concentration in the maternal artery and expired gas mixture. Spontaneous uterine contractions were good in 12 patients, fair in two and poor in two. The measured blood loss was 752 ± 257ml including amniotic fluid. No blood transfusion was given to any patient. The median value of the Apgar score at one minute was seven (range three to nine). No neonate was intubated for resuscitation. No abnormal maternal laboratory data were found, including liver and kidney function tests and blood cell counts one week after the operation. No adverse effect of sevoflurane on the neonate was found one week after the delivery and three months after the discharge.(Asada A, Fujimori M, Tomoda S et al.: Sevoflurane Anesthesia for elective cesarean section. J Anesth 4: 66–72, 1990)     

Comparison of neonatal outcomes of cesarean sections performed under primary or secondary general anesthesia: a retrospective study

BackgroundThe conversion of neuraxial anesthesia (NA) to general anesthesia (GA) during a cesarean section (CS) may be associated with a higher risk of neonatal morbidity by adding the undesirable effects of both these anesthesia techniques. We aimed to compare the neonatal morbidity of non-elective CS performed after conversion from NA to GA (secondary GA) vs. that after GA from the outset (primary GA).MethodsWe performed a monocentric retrospective study at the Angers University Hospital (France). All non-elective CSs performed under GA between January 2015 and December 2019 were included. The CSs were classified using a three-color coding system (green for non-urgent delivery, orange for urgent CS, and red for very urgent CS). The primary neonatal outcome was a composite of umbilical artery pH <7.10 or 5-min Apgar score <7. The crude and adjusted odds ratios (OR) for the risk of neonatal morbidity associated with secondary GA were estimated.ResultsWe included 247 patients, of whom 101 (41.3%) had a secondary GA and 146 (58.7%) had primary GA. In the secondary GA group, 86.1% (87/101) had epidural anesthesia and 13.9% (14/101) had spinal anesthesia. Multivariate analysis showed no difference in neonatal morbidity between the two groups (adjusted odds ratio 1.18, 95% CI 0.56 to 2.51).ConclusionsOur study found insufficient evidence to identify a difference in neonatal outcomes between secondary compared with primary GA for CS, regardless of the level of emergency. However, our study is underpowered and additional studies are needed to confirm these data.     

硬膜外麻醉与全麻对剖宫产术新生儿的影响比较

目的观察比较硬膜外麻醉与全身麻醉对剖宫产术新生儿的影响。方法选择足月妊娠行剖宫产术的中国孕妇100例和赞比亚孕妇100例。ASA(美国麻醉医师协会分级法)Ⅰ～Ⅱ级,无妊高征,无产前子痫,无胎儿宫内窘迫,胎儿发育良好。中国孕妇,在硬膜外麻醉下行剖宫产手术(EA组);赞比亚孕妇,在硫苯妥钠、氟烷加肌松剂全身麻醉下行剖宫产手术(GA组)。两组产妇术中均监测ECG、HR、BP和SpO2;观察比较两组自麻醉开始至胎儿娩出时间,新生儿体重,新生儿Apgar评分。结果两组产妇术中ECG均为窦性心律;EA组术中HR显著慢于GA组,P<0.05;EA组BP显著低于GA组P<0.05,两组SpO2均可维持在96%～100%,两组相比差异无统计学意义,P>0.05;两组自麻醉开始至胎儿娩出时间GA组短于EA组;新生儿体重两组间比较差异无统计学意义,P>0.05;新生儿Apgar评分,EA组显著高于GA组,P<0.05。结论硬膜外麻醉对剖宫产术新生儿的影响显著小于全身麻醉。     

Spinal anesthesia for cesarean section following inadequate labor epidural analgesia: a retrospective audit

BACKGROUND: High blocks have been reported when spinal anesthesia is used for cesarean section following inadequate labor epidural analgesia. We have therefore modified the practice at our institution to minimize this risk and conducted a retrospective observational study of outcome following the change of practice. METHOD: The records of 115 women with inadequate epidural labor analgesia who required cesarean section between July 1998 and January 2002 were studied. No epidural boluses were administered in the 30 min preceding spinal anesthesia and a reduced spinal dose, median (range) 9.38 mg (7.5-11.3 mg) of 0.75% hyperbaric bupivacaine and fentanyl 15 microg (10-25 microg) was used. Patients were left sitting for 2 min and then positioned supine with left uterine displacement and were closely monitored for symptoms or signs that would suggest a high block. RESULTS: No parturient developed a high spinal necessitating intubation, and there was no adverse neonatal outcome. CONCLUSION: These findings do not conclusively establish this method as safe, but should spinal anesthesia for cesarean section following suboptimal labor epidural analgesia be considered, avoiding epidural boluses immediately preceding spinal injection, using a lower spinal dose, and delayed supine positioning following spinal injection may be advisable.     

Epidural anesthesia in a parturient with neurofibromatosis type 2 undergoing cesarean section

Neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) is a rare condition only recently recognized. We present a case describing successful regional analgesia in a parturient with NF2 after thorough imaging revealed no tumors within the epidural space. The presence of tumors within the spinal cord and nerve roots and their potential enlargement during pregnancy make routine neuraxial anesthesia hazardous in patients with NF2. Lumbosacral imaging before performing regional anesthesia is recommended.     

Vasopressor therapy for hypotension due to epidural anesthesia for cesarean section

Maternal hemodynamic changes and neonatal acid-base status were assessed in 127 healthy patients undergoing elective cesarean section under epidural anesthesia. An impedance cardiograph was used to measure stroke volume (SV), ejection fraction (EF) and end-diastolic volume (EDV). In addition, neonatal umbilical venous and arterial PO2, PCO2, pH, base excess, lactate, pyruvate, excess lactate, and L/P ratio were measured at birth. Patients were divided into three groups. Group 1 (n = 53) required no vasopressor (normotensive controls). In Group 2 (n = 37), mean blood pressure (BP) decreased from 90 mmHg (13.3 kPa). In Group 3 (n = 37), BP decreased from 83 mmHg to 62 mmHg (11.1 to 8.2 kPa), and phenylephrine was administered in 100 micrograms increments to maintain systolic BP greater than 100 mmHg (13.3 kPa). In Groups 2 and 3 the SV and EDV decreased 43% and 33% respectively when hypotension developed. Both vasopressors restored BP, SV and EDV to near baseline values. Neonatal Apgar scores and acid-base profiles were not significantly different among the three groups of neonates, nor were they different between the two hypotensive groups. It is concluded that: 1) transient maternal hypotension does not affect neonatal acid-base status; 2) both ephedrine and phenylephrine increase cardiac preload; and 3) an alpha agent like phenylephrine does not cause fetal acidosis when used for treating maternal hypotension.     

Epidural anesthesia for cesarean section in a patient with severe pulmonary hypertension

The case of a parturient previously operated on for transposition of the great arteries is reported. On account of Eisenmenger's syndrome with high pulmonary vascular pressures, she was admitted to hospital with hemoptysis in the 27th week of gestation. At the end of the 34th week the child was delivered by elective cesarean section under epidural block. Bupivacaine 0.75% was administered as local anesthetic, and small incremental doses of local anesthetic proved capable of maintaining hemodynamic stability for the duration of the operative procedure.