LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF TERM AND PRETERM CHILDREN DURING THE FIRST FIVE YEARS OF LIFE

Language development during the first five years is reported for 114 high-risk preterm children (20 with varying degrees of cerebral palsy) and 97 healthy term children. Most stages of language development occurred at slightly later ages among the neurologically unimpaired preterm children than among those born at term. Preterm children with cerebral palsy were more delayed and had more articulation defects compared with neurologically unimpaired preterm children. Girls were more advanced in early language development and showed less articulation defects than boys. The perinatal optimality score was significantly correlated with the ages at which the stages of language development were reached, and with language performance at five years in preterm children, but much less in term children. Birthweight and gestational age were negatively correlated with language development at all ages. Socio-economic status and birth order had an age-related influences on language development, but no correlation was found with the number of minor congenital malformations.     

Trajectories and profiles of adaptive behavior in males with fragile X syndrome: Multicenter studies

We conducted two multicenter studies on adaptive trajectories and profiles in males with fragile X syndrome. Study 1 longitudinally assessed 29 males ages 1–20 years using ageequivalent scores from the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. Fragile X boys ages 1–10 years showed significant gains in adaptive skills from first to second testing; males ages 11–20 years were stable in their adaptive development. Study 2 cross-sectionally examined 132 males ages 1–20 years. Significant age-related gains were found in boys ages 1–10, particularly in preschool children. Subjects ages 11–20 showed increased variability and nonsignificant relations between age and adaptive skills. Preliminary findings from 26 young adults with fragile X syndrome ages 21–40 years showed stable age-equivalent adaptive scores during these years. Relative strengths in daily living skills and weaknesses in communication were only evident among older subjects. Significant relations were found between adaptive behavior standard scores and IQ; these two scores also showed age-related declines that likely parallel one another. Findings are related to adaptive features in other genetic syndromes, and to directions for future adaptive behavior research.     

The social origins of delinquency

The mothers of more than 500 children were interviewed about their child-rearing practices and attitudes, at 4-yearly intervals over a period of 21 years. Interview data from when the children were 7 and 11 years old were analysed with respect to two outcome measures: ‘troublesomeness’ at 16 years and the acquisition of a criminal record in early adulthood. The aim of the study was to identify childrearing strategies which were predictive of later delinquency, independently of factors such as sex, social class and family size. Child-rearing strategies were measured using a structured interview designed for the study. Responses to selected items were used to construct scales along the following dimensions: ‘bamboozlement’, the use by parents of unrealistic verbal threats or promises; ‘chaperonage’, the degree of oversight and surveillance assigned to the child; and ‘child-centredness’, the priority given to respecting the child's rights and wishes. Parents' use of physical punishment, the child's temperament, father participation and family cohesion were also measured in this way, with respect to subsequent delinquency. The findings suggest that there are significant correlations between child-rearing strategies and the child's development of delinquency. In particular an authoritarian approach to children, a lack of sensitive communication and negotiation between parent and child, and the use of physical punishment were found to predict subsequent delinquency.     

Early attachment and maternal insightfulness predict educational placement of children with autism

We examined whether mothers’ insightfulness – their capacity to “see things from the child's point of view” – and children's attachment, both assessed during the preschool years, are associated with the educational placement of children with ASD in middle childhood and early adolescence beyond the prediction offered by children's IQ and interactive competence. 39 boys with autism and their mothers participated. We assessed mothers’ insightfulness, and children's attachment to their mothers, their intelligence and their interactional competencies. The results supported our hypothesis. The emotional quality of the relationship between the children and their mothers during the preschool age, as reflected in the mothers’ insightfulness and the children's attachment security, predicted children's educational placement in inclusive programs 4.5 and 8.5 years later, over and above the prediction offered by children's IQ and their interactive competence.     

Preschool sleep and depression interact to predict gray matter volume trajectories across late childhood to adolescence

There is a close relationship between sleep and depression, and certain maladaptive outcomes of sleep problems may only be apparent in individuals with heightened levels of depression. In a sample enriched for preschool depression, we examined how sleep and depression in early childhood interact to predict later trajectories of gray matter volume. Participants (N = 161) were recruited and assessed during preschool (ages 3–6 years) and were later assessed with five waves of structural brain imaging, spanning from late childhood to adolescence. Sleep and depression were assessed using a semi-structured parent interview when the children were preschool-aged, and total gray matter volume was calculated at each scan wave. Although sleep disturbances alone did not predict gray matter volume/trajectories, preschool sleep and depression symptoms interacted to predict later total gray matter volume and the trajectory of decline in total gray matter volume. Sleep disturbances in the form of longer sleep onset latencies, increased irregularity in the child’s sleep schedule, and higher levels of daytime sleepiness in early childhood were all found to interact with early childhood depression severity to predict later trajectories of cortical gray matter volume. Findings provide evidence of the interactive effects of preschool sleep and depression symptoms on later neurodevelopment.     

Repetitive behaviour and obsessive–compulsive features in Asperger syndrome: Parental and self-reports

Symptoms of repetitive, obsessive and compulsive behaviour were explored in a group of adolescents and young adults with Asperger syndrome and compared to a typically developing group. By means of self-evaluations and an interview regarding such symptoms with the adolescents and young adults and parental evaluations, the parents retrospectively assessed the behaviour of their children from preschool years to middle teens, and the young participants assessed their own behaviour from school years until present time. An anxiety scale was also used. The results revealed no significant differences between the groups on the interview and the anxiety scale. There were, however, significant differences on both the parental and the self-evaluations. Thus, the parents reported that their children had difficulties with repetitive, obsessive–compulsive behaviour, and social interaction from preschool years, and both the parents and the adolescents and young adults reported considerable difficulties in those areas during school years. When comparing the evaluations from the parents and the young participants it was shown that the parents in the Asperger group reported significantly more problems than their children while in the comparison group the parents reported less problems than their children.     

Preschool self regulation predicts later mental health and educational achievement in very preterm and typically developing children

Abstract

Objective: To examine the extent to which preschool emotional and behavioral regulatory difficulties were associated with an increased risk of later mental health and educational problems. Of particular interest was whether early regulatory abilities contributed to later risk once baseline child behavioral adjustment and cognitive function were taken into account. Method: Data were drawn from a prospective longitudinal study of 223 children born very preterm (VPT; <32 weeks gestation, n = 110) and full term (37–40 weeks gestation). At corrected ages 2 and 4 years, children’s regulatory abilities were assessed using (1) direct observation of child behavior, (2) a modified version of the Emotion Regulation Checklist, and (3) tester ratings of child behavior during neuropsychological testing. At age 9 years, mental health and educational achievement were assessed using the Development and Well-being Assessment interview and the Woodcock Johnson-III Tests of Achievement. Results: VPT-born children had poorer emotional and behavioral regulation across all measures and time points. They also had higher rates of DSM-IV mental health disorder and educational delay at age 9. Across both study groups, poorer self regulation was associated with an increased risk of ADHD, conduct disorder, anxiety disorders and any disorder net of preschool child behavior problems and social risk. In contrast, only associations between early regulation and later language and any educational delay remained significant after adjustment for preschool cognitive functioning and family social risk. Conclusion: Early assessment of regulation in addition to behavioral screening may improve the early identification of preschool children at mental health risk.     

Attention and conduct problems in children exposed to family violence

This study examines the impact of family violence on the development of attention and conduct problems in girls and boys. Mothers (n = 287) were interviewed and given diagnostic assessment instruments to measure attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder in 1 of their children. Six years later, youths were interviewed about their delinquent behavior. Family violence related to attention and conduct problems in girls only. Girls who displayed these problems in childhood were not necessarily at risk for later delinquency. Family violence in childhood had a direct effect on delinquency in girls. Boys who developed attention problems were more likely to show conduct problems that eventually led to adolescent delinquency. Family violence failed to account for problems or delinquency in boys.     

Early childhood predictors of mothers' and fathers' relationships with adolescents with developmental disabilities

Background The importance of positive parent–adolescent relationships is stressed in research on adolescents, although very little is known about this relationship when a teen has developmental disabilities (DD). We investigated the relationships of adolescents with disabilities with their mothers and their fathers in order to answer a number of questions regarding these relationships. In particular, we asked: are there differences in the relationships of mothers and fathers with their adolescent with DD? Are there early childhood predictors of the parent–teen relationship and are those based on variables that are amenable to intervention? Finally, do these predictors differ for mothers and fathers? Methods This study focused on the relationships of 72 mothers and 53 fathers with their 15‐year‐old teens with DD and their predictors from the early childhood years. Data were collected from parents through interviews and self‐administered questionnaires, and from their children with disabilities through structured assessment when children were age 3 years and again at age 15 years. Results Analyses indicated that both mother–teen and father–teen relationships were predicted by earlier parenting stress. The father–teen relationship was also predicted by early behaviour problems, but this relation was mediated by parenting stress. Socio‐economic status, type of disability and the child's level of functioning were not predictive of later relationships between parents and teens. Mothers and fathers did not differ significantly in their reports of perceived positive relationships with their teens. Conclusions The findings from this study suggest two important points of potential intervention during the early intervention years. First, parenting assistance and support to reduce stress during the early childhood years can benefit both mothers and fathers. Second, helping families and children cope with and diminish problem behaviours is likely to yield multiple advantages for parents and children and deserves emphasis in early intervention and pre‐school programmes.     

Developmental trajectories of social cognition from preschool to adolescence

This longitudinal study aims to define the developmental trajectories of social cognition (SC) in a community sample (N = 378) assessed from preschool (3 years old) to preadolescence (12 years old). Parents and teachers reported on a SC measure at ages 5, 10, and 12. We tested the existence of different trajectories and whether they discriminated outcomes in early adolescence. The data were collected from different sources, the children, the parents, and teachers, by means of different methods. Using Growth Mixture Modeling (GMM), we identified three distinct social cognition trajectories: persistently mild difficulties reported by parents and teachers (7.9% of the children), stable low problems reported by parents and increased difficulties reported by teachers (10.5% of the sample), and stable low problems reported by both informants for most of the participants (81.5%). Comparison of the psychological outcomes between classes using regression models showed that the two trajectories including children with any level of problems differ from the normative one as regards their association with psychological problems, daily functioning, and variables, such as aggressive behavior and callousness. The two non-normative trajectories also differ from each other in terms of the personal characteristics of the adolescents included in them. Adolescents in the increasing problematic class in the school have a tougher and more problematic style of social relating, while children with persistent and non-context-dependent difficulties are more anxious. These results might help to better detect and design specific interventions for children with deficits in SC that might respond to different personal characteristics leading to different outcomes.

     

Cross-cultural differences in the sleep of preschool children

BackgroundThe aim of our study was to characterize cross-cultural sleep patterns and sleep problems in a large sample of preschool children ages 3–6 years in multiple predominantly Asian (P-A) and predominantly Caucasian (P-C) countries/regions.MethodsParents of 2590 preschool-aged children (P-A countries/regions: China, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand; P-C countries: Australia-New Zealand, Canada, United Kingdom, United States) completed an Internet-based expanded version of the Brief Child Sleep Questionnaire (BCSQ).ResultsOverall, children from P-A countries had significantly later bedtimes, shorter nighttime sleep, and increased parental perception of sleep problems compared with those from P-C countries. Bedtimes varied from as early as 7:43 pm in Australia and New Zealand to as late as 10:26 pm in India, a span of almost 3 h. There also were significant differences in daytime sleep with the majority of children in P-A countries continuing to nap, resulting in no differences in 24-h total sleep times (TST) across culture and minimal differences across specific countries. Bed sharing and room sharing are common in P-A countries, with no change across the preschool years. There also were a significant percentage of parents who perceived that their child had a sleep problem (15% in Korea to 44% in China).ConclusionsOverall, our results indicate significant cross-cultural differences in sleep patterns, sleeping arrangements, and parent-reported sleep problems in preschool-aged children. Further studies are needed to understand the underlying bases for these differences and especially for contributors to parents’ perceptions of sleep problems.     

Do Headache and Abdominal Pain in Childhood Predict Suicides and Severe Suicide Attempts? Finnish Nationwide 1981 Birth Cohort Study

This study investigated associations between pain symptoms in mid-childhood and severe suicidality in adolescence and early adulthood. Severe suicidality was defined as completed suicide or suicidal attempt requiring hospital admission. In a nationwide prospective population-based study (n = 6,017), parents and children were asked about the child’s headache and abdominal pain at age eight. The outcome was register-based data on suicide or suicidal attempt requiring hospital treatment by age 24. Family composition, parental educational level, and the child’s psychiatric symptoms reported by the child, parents and teacher at baseline were included as covariates in statistical analyses. Boys’ abdominal pain reported by the parents was associated with later severe suicidality after adjusting for family composition, parental educational level, and childhood psychiatric symptoms at baseline. In addition, the association between boys’ own report of headache and later severe suicidality reached borderline significance in unadjusted analysis. Girls’ pain symptoms did not predict later severe suicidality.     

Does low self-control during childhood explain the association between delinquency and accidents in early adolescence?

Data from a longitudinal study of a large sample of boys followed from kindergarten to high school were used to test two alternative hypotheses concerning the association between delinquency and accidents. The first hypothesis proposes that delinquency and accidents are correlated because they are both the product of a failure to learn self-control during childhood. The alternative hypothesis proposes that self-control during childhood will explain part of the association between delinquency and accidents during adolescence, but delinquency will still increase the risk for accidents. Linear structural equation modelling was used to test the alternative hypotheses with data collected from teachers, mothers and self-reports, at 6, 10, 14 and 15 years of age. Results supported the hypothesis that childhood self-control levels only explain part of the association between driving accidents and delinquency during early adolescence, and delinquency increases the risk of accidents. Results also indicated that the association between delinquency and accidents increased with age, suggesting that the risk of accidents during adolescence increases as involvement in delinquency increases. Details of a case of delinquent behaviour which led to a fatal car accident are given. It was also suggested that longitudinal studies of the association between self-control and antisocial behaviour should focus on their early development during the preschool years.     

Prevalence,structure and correlates of anxiety-depression in boys with an autism spectrum disorder

BackgroundComorbidity of anxiety and depression predicts impaired treatment outcomes, poor quality of life and increased suicide risk. No study has reported on a combined measure of anxiety-depression in boys with an Autism Spectrum Disorder.AimsTo explore the prevalence, underlying factor structure and relationships between anxiety-depression, physiological stress and symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).Methods150 boys (aged 6–18 years; IQ M = 94.9, range = 73–132) with an ASD plus their parents (135 mothers, 15 fathers) completed scales about the boys’ anxiety and depression, and the boys provided samples of their saliva in the morning and afternoon. Parents also completed the ASD Behaviour Checklist about the boys’ ASD symptoms.ResultsThe two sources of ratings were not significantly different for prevalence of anxiety-depression but the factor structures varied between the parents’ and boys’ responses, with a four-factor solution for the boys’ ratings and a three-factor solution for the parents’ ratings. There were also differences in the correlations between cortisol and anxiety-depression and between ASD symptoms and anxiety depression across the boys’ and parents’ data.ConclusionsAssessment of anxiety and depression comorbidity from parents and from children with an ASD themselves could provide a valuable adjunct datum when diagnosing ASD.     

Emotional and Behavioral Problems in Children and Adolescents in Central Kenya

Emotional and behavioral problems (EBP) during childhood and adolescence are a common concern for parents and mental health stakeholders. However, little has been documented about their prevalence in Kenyan children and adolescents. This study aimed to close this gap. The study included Child Behavior Checklist reports from 1022 Kenyan parents on their children (ages 6–18 years) and Youth Self-Reports from 533 adolescents (ages 12–18) living in Kenya’s Central Province. EBP in Kenya are highly prevalent compared to multi-cultural standards for parent reports, with 27 and 17% scoring in the borderline and clinical range, respectively. Based on parent reports, younger children scored higher on EBP than older children, and higher on internalizing problems. Based on self-reports girls scored higher than boys, particularly on internalizing problems. The study provides evidence on elevated parent-reported EBP in Kenyan youths. Mental health providers should focus on interventions that reduce EBP in Kenyan youths.     

Prevalence of depressive symptoms and associated developmental disorders in preschool children: a population-based study

Depression is an incapacitating disorder, which is often overlooked in preschool children. The aim of this study was to analyse the prevalence of depressive symptoms and co-occurring risk factors in a large, population-based sample of preschool children. All 653 children (of a total of 731) in a defined geographical area were assessed during the school-entry exam by community care paediatricians. In addition to clinical appraisal, parents filled out the Preschool Feelings Checklist, a 16-item screening instrument with good psychometric properties. The mean age was 6.2 years (range 5.0–7.6 years) and the sample included 344 boys and 305 girls. The prevalence of depressive symptoms of clinical relevance (total score ≥3) was 5.7 % (37). There were no differences between boys and girls, and between younger (<6 years) and older (>6 years) children. Depressive symptoms were associated with parental separation and comorbid behavioural problems, but especially with developmental motor and speech problems and disorders. Migration to Germany had no influence. Depressive symptoms are common in preschool children and associated with developmental problems. Depression should be considered in children with speech and motor problems who are at special risk. Early detection and treatment are recommended.     

ADHD in preschool children: parent-rated psychosocial correlates

Twenty-five children (21 males, 4 females; mean age 4.8 years) with attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) participated in this study in addition to 25 typically developing children (21 males, 4 females; mean age 4.9 years). Parental ratings of the preschool children and preschool child self-ratings were examined within the framework of three domains: behavioral disturbance, social competence, and familial environment. Compared to their typically developing peers, preschool children classified as having ADHD were rated by their parents as significantly more aggressive, more demanding of parental time, less socially skilled, less adaptable to change in routine, and as exhibiting more noncompliance. In contrast to these parental ratings, preschool children with ADHD perceived themselves as equally competent, and as socially accepted as their peers. Parents of preschool children with ADHD rated themselves as less competent parents, and as experiencing a restricted parenting role. Although parenting a preschool child with ADHD was viewed as stressful, the parents did not rate general family functioning to be adversely affected.     

Family structure, marital discord and offspring’s psychopathology in early adulthood: a prospective study

With marital breakdown and discord relatively common, we examined whether family structure and the quality of marital relationship have a long-term impact on offspring’s psychopathology in early adulthood. This study aimed to examine the association of family structure and marital discord in the family with a wide range of offspring’s mental health and problem behaviours at 21 years. Data were from the Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy, a population based birth cohort study, which commenced in Brisbane, Australia in 1981. Mothers and children were followed up at birth, 6 months and 5, 14 and 21 years after the initial interview. Marital status and marital quality were assessed at the 14 year follow-up. Young Adult Self-Report sub-scales of mental health and problem behaviours were measured at the 21-year follow-up. Type of family structure and the quality of marital relationship (at the 14-year follow-up) predicted offspring’s psychopathology at 21 years. When a selected group of confounding factors were included in the multivariate analyses, children who lived with a step-father, un-partnered mother, or in families where parents had conflict in marital relationship reported higher symptoms of psychopathology at 21 years. The association between marital problems and young adult psychopathology does not appear to be confounded by a wide range of confounding variables. Further research is needed to explore the mechanism of these associations to develop preventive programmes.     

成都市学龄前儿童情绪行为问题现状调查

目的 了解成都市学龄前儿童情绪行为问题的现状.方法 应用长处和困难问卷(SDQ)(家长版),采用整群分层随机抽样,对成都市5个辖区17所幼儿园的949名3~7岁学龄前儿童进行调查.结果 21.3%的学龄前儿童存在情绪问题.其中24.9%的女童有情绪问题,17.3%的男童有情绪问题,女童情绪问题的发生率高于男童(χ2=7.298,P=0.007).女童在情绪问题方面的得分高于男童(t=-2.770,P=0.006).分别有13.0%,19.7%,18.6%,19.2%的学龄前儿童存在品行、多动、同伴交往、亲社会行为问题,但其发生率均不存在性别差异.男童在同伴交往问题方面的得分高于女童(t=2.442,P=0.015),女童在亲社会行为方面的得分高于男童(t=2.940,P=0.003).综合年龄、性别、家庭状况等因素对于学龄前儿童情绪障碍具有61.3%的预测准确性.结论 部分学龄前儿童存在明显的情绪及行为问题,女童的情绪问题更多及发生率更高,同伴关系和亲社会性发展更好.学龄前儿童的情绪障碍与多种因素有关.     

Video game use and problem behaviors in boys with autism spectrum disorders

Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have strong preferences for screen-based media, particularly video games. Although problematic video game use has been associated with behavior problems among typically developing children, the relationship between these variables has not been previously examined among children with ASD. The current study examined the relationships between aspects of video game use and problem behaviors among a sample of 169 boys (ages 8–18) with ASD. Parents reported on their children's behavioral functioning and video game habits and preferences, including the average number of hours spent playing video games per day, preferred game types (genres), and problematic (i.e., addictive) video game play patterns. The results revealed that problematic video game use was significantly correlated with inattention and oppositional behavior. Boys who played Role-Playing games had higher levels of both problematic game use and oppositional behavior. Finally, problematic game use and Role-Playing game genre were significant predictors of oppositional behavior, even when controlling for age and amount of time spent playing video games. The results highlight the clinical importance of examining video game use patterns among children with ASD, and indicate a need for future experimental and longitudinal research in this area.