Apoptosis is not enhanced in primary mixed neuronal/glial cultures protected by isoflurane against N-methyl-D-aspartate excitotoxicity

Volatile anesthetics reduce acute excitotoxic cell death in primary neuronal/glial cultures. We hypothesized that cells protected by isoflurane against N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-induced necrosis would instead become apoptotic. Primary mixed neuronal/glial cultures prepared from fetal rat brain were exposed to dissolved isoflurane (0 mM, 0.4 mM [1.8 minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration], or 1.6 mM [7 minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration]) and NMDA (0 or 100 microM) at 37 degrees C for 30 min. Dizocilpine (10 microM) plus 100 microM NMDA served as a positive control. Necrosis and apoptosis were assessed at 24 and/or 48 h after exposure by using Hoechst/propidium iodide staining, terminal-deoxynucleotidyl transferase end-nick labeling, DNA fragmentation enzyme-linked immunoabsorbence, and caspase-3 activity assays. NMDA increased the number of necrotic cells. Isoflurane (1.6 mM) and dizocilpine partially reduced cellular necrosis but did not increase the number of morphologically apoptotic or apoptotic-like cells resulting from exposure to 100 microM NMDA at 24 h. At 48 h, no evidence was found to indicate that cells protected by isoflurane had become apoptotic or apoptotic-like. However, cells protected by dizocilpine against necrosis showed evidence of caspase-3-mediated apoptosis. These in vitro data do not support the hypothesis that isoflurane protection against acute excitotoxic necrosis results in apoptosis.     

短期使用齐多夫定抑制p53R2表达及诱导小鼠神经元凋亡的研究

目的探讨齐多夫定(AZT)的中枢神经毒性及其相关机制。方法原代培养小鼠大脑皮层神经元,分别用0 mmol/L、50 mmol/L、100 mmol/L的AZT作用于细胞,TUNEL法检测细胞凋亡,免疫荧光观察细胞形态,实时定量PCR(qPCR)检测依赖p53的p53R2、抑癌基因p21、胸苷激酶(TK2)mRNA表达及线粒体DNA含量,蛋白印迹检测p53R2与p21蛋白的表达。结果 AZT 0mmol/L组(对照组)、50 mmol/L组和100 mmol/L组细胞凋亡率分别为(11.9±3.37)%、(24.3±8.94)%和(54.7±17.9)%,差异具有统计学意义(χ2=5.19、19.33,P均0.01);突起长度分别为(869.21±177.75)mm、(495.76±175.20)mm和(120.38±47.12)mm,且差异均具有统计学意义(F=19.558,P=0.002);real-time qPCR检测结果显示AZT 50 mmol/L和100 mmol/L组p53R2、TK2 mRNA拷贝数分别是对照组的0.42和0.04倍、0.52和0.29倍,组间差异均具有统计学意义(Z=-4.54、-6.65、-4.33和-5.24,P均0.01);AZT 50 mmol/L和100 mmol/L组p21 mRNA拷贝数分别是对照组的0.98和0.86倍,差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。线粒体含量用环氧化酶2(COX-2)拷贝数评估,AZT 50 mmol/L组和100 mmol/L组分别是对照组的0.92和0.87倍,差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。蛋白印迹显示对照组、AZT 50 mmol/L组和100 mmol/L组p53R2蛋白含量依次降低,而p21蛋白含量无差异。结论 AZT可诱导神经元凋亡,抑制突起形成,推测其机制与p53R2表达降低有关。短期接触AZT可抑制TK2的表达,但对线粒体DNA含量无影响。     

Motor neuronal and glial apoptosis in the adult facial nucleus after intracranial nerve transection

OBJECT: Intracranial lesions affecting the facial nerve are usually associated with significant morbidity and poor functional restitution, despite the fact that a peripheral nerve injury normally recovers well. Mechanistic explanations are needed to direct future therapies. Although neonatal motor neurons are known to die as a result of apoptosis after axotomy, this cell death mechanism has not been explicitly demonstrated after peripheral cranial nerve transection in adult mammals. METHODS: The authors induced substantial retrograde neuronal death in the adult rodent by transecting the facial nerve during its intracranial course. Neuronal apoptosis was demonstrated as shrunken facial motor neurons, retrogradely labeled with fluorogold and with nuclei positively labeled by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labeling (TUNEL). Glial apoptosis was demonstrated by double labeling with respect to cell type. On postinjury Days 7 and 14, the intracranial axotomy led to neuronal apoptosis, corresponding to a neuronal loss that was observed quantitatively in cresyl violet-stained tissue sections obtained using a stereological method. In contrast, no neuronal apoptosis was observed after creating a distal lesion of the facial nerve, which causes less neuronal loss. In addition, glial apoptosis was seen in the facial nucleus after both distal and proximal axotomy. Whereas the proximal intracranial axotomy led to TUNEL-positive nuclei in cells showing markers for oligodendrocytes and microglia, only the latter glial cell population was double labeled with TUNEL-positive nuclei after distal lesioning. CONCLUSIONS: These findings may ultimately lead to new therapeutic strategies in patients suffering from facial nerve palsy due to an intracranial lesion.     

Caspase activation in neuronal and glial apoptosis following spinal cord injury in mice

The involvement of caspases in apoptosis after spinal cord injury (SCI) was investigated in adult mouse spinal cord after contusion. Sections of spinal cord were processed for staining 7 days after SCI with the fluorescent dye Hoechst 33342, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end-labeling (TUNEL), and immunostaining with an antibody (CM1) recognizing activated caspase-3. Caspase-3- and caspase-8-like enzyme activities were measured colorimetrically at 8 hours to 7 days after SCI using the specific substrates Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-p-nitroanilide and Ile-Glu-Thr-Asp-p-nitroanilide, respectively. Hoechst 33342 staining showed small, bright areas in fragmented nuclei. Double labeling with TUNEL plus immunostaining with cell type-specific markers identified TUNEL-positive neurons stained by anti-neuronal nuclear protein/neurons antibody, and TUNEL-positive oligodendrocytes stained by anti-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphohydrolase antibody. Double labeling with CM1 and cell-type specific markers similarly identified CM1-positive neurons and oligodendrocytes. Caspase-8-like enzyme activity was increased significantly on days 3 and 7 (p < 0.01), whereas caspase-3-like activity increased on day 7 (p < 0.01). Intraventricular injection of a nonspecific tetrapeptide caspase inhibitor or a specific tetrapeptide inhibitor of caspase-3 just after SCI reduced enzyme activity at 7 days. Apoptotic cells were identified with TUNEL staining in both neurons and oligodendrocytes in mice after SCI, which also showed activated caspase-3. Increased caspase-3- and caspase-8-like activity was detected in the injured spinal cord on days 3 and 7. Caspase protease activities may be involved in delayed neuronal and glial apoptosis after SCI.     

异氟醚预处理对谷氨酸诱导大鼠神经元样PC12细胞凋亡的影响

目的 探讨异氟醚预处理对谷氨酸诱导大鼠神经元样PC12细胞凋亡的影响.方法 神经生长因子孵育5d的神经元样PC12细胞,以5×104个/ml密度接种于6 cm培养皿(3 ml/皿)或6孔板(2ml/孔),采用随机数字表法,将其随机分为4组(n=18):正常对照组(C组)、谷氨酸组(G组)、谷氨酸+异氟醚组(GI组)和谷氨酸+异氟醚+三磷酸肌醇受体拮抗剂光溜海绵素组(GIX组).C组不做任何处理;G组、GI组和GIX组均加入500 μmol/L谷氨酸,GI组和GIX组通入1.2％异氟醚2h,停止通入后10 min加入谷氨酸,GIX组通入异氟醚前即刻加入光溜海绵素100 nmol/L.于谷氨酸孵育20 min时,每组取6皿和6孔,收集细胞,采用流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡率和线粒体膜电位(MMP),采用显微荧光测量技术检测细胞内钙离子浓度([Ca2+]i).结果 与C组比较,G组和GIX组细胞凋亡率和[Ca2+]i升高,MMP降低(P＜0.01),GI组上述指标差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05);与G组比较,GI组和GIX组细胞凋亡率和[Ca2+]i降低,MMP升高(P＜0.05或0.01);与GI组比较,GIX组细胞凋亡率和[Ca2+]i升高,MMP降低(P＜0.01).结论 异氟醚预处理可抑制大鼠神经元样PC12细胞凋亡,其机制与激活内质网三磷酸肌醇受体,抑制内质网释放Ca2+,提高MMP有关.     

Effect of isoflurane on neuronal apoptosis in rats subjected to focal cerebral ischemia

Although isoflurane can reduce ischemic neuronal injury after short postischemic recovery intervals, this neuroprotective efficacy is not sustained. Neuronal apoptosis can contribute to the gradual increase in infarct size after ischemia. This suggests that isoflurane, although capable of reducing early neuronal death, may not inhibit ischemia-induced apoptosis. We investigated the effects of isoflurane on markers of apoptosis in rats subjected to focal ischemia. Fasted Wistar-Kyoto rats were anesthetized with isoflurane and randomly allocated to awake (n = 40) or isoflurane (n = 40) groups. Animals in both groups were subjected to focal ischemia by filament occlusion of the middle cerebral artery for 70 min. Pericranial temperature was servo-controlled at 37 degrees C +/- 0.2 degrees C throughout the experiment. In the awake group, isoflurane was discontinued and the animals were allowed to awaken. In the isoflurane group, isoflurane anesthesia was maintained at 1.5 MAC (minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration). Animals were killed 7 h, 1 day, 4 days, or 7 days after reperfusion (n = 10/group/time point). The area of cerebral infarction was measured by image analysis in a hematoxylin and eosin stained section. In three adjacent sections, apoptotic neurons were identified by TUNEL staining and immunostaining for active caspase-9 and caspase-3. Infarct size was smaller in the isoflurane group than the awake group 7 h, 1 day, and 4 days after reperfusion (P < 0.05). However, this difference was absent 7 days after reperfusion. The number of apoptotic (TUNEL, caspase-3, and caspase-9 positive) cells 1 day after ischemia was significantly more in the awake versus isoflurane group. After a recovery period of 4 or 7 days, the number of apoptotic cells in the isoflurane group was more than in the awake group. After 7 days, the number of caspase-3 and -9 positive neurons was more in the isoflurane group (P < 0.05). The data indicate that isoflurane delays but does not prevent the development of cerebral infarction caused by ischemia. Isoflurane reduced the development of apoptosis early after ischemia but did not prevent it at later stages of postischemic recovery. IMPLICATIONS: The effect of isoflurane on neuronal apoptosis was investigated in rats subjected to focal cerebral ischemia. In isoflurane-anesthetized animals, ischemia-induced apoptosis occurred during the later stages of postischemic recovery. Isoflurane did not inhibit postischemic neuronal apoptosis.     

Cerebral cortical effects of desflurane in sheep: comparison with isoflurane, sevoflurane and enflurane

BACKGROUND: Different volatile anesthetic agents have differing propensities for inducing seizures. A measure of the predilection to develop seizures is the presence of interictal spike discharges (spikes) on the electrocorticogram (ECoG). In this study, we investigated the propensity of desflurane to induce cortical spikes and made a direct objective comparison with enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane. The ECoG effects of desflurane have not been previously reported. METHODS: After establishment of invasive monitoring and a parasagittal array of eight electrodes to record the ECoG; eight adult merino sheep were given a series of short inhalational anesthetics (using desflurane, enflurane, sevoflurane and isoflurane); each titrated to ECoG burst suppression. Anesthetic effect was estimated by the effects on the approximate entropy of the ECoG. The effect of anesthetic on the spike-rate in the ECoG was analyzed using a non-linear mixed-effect method with a sigmoid Emax model. RESULTS: A similar 'depth of anesthesia' was achieved for each agent, as estimated by the approximate entropy. The mean (SD) values of Emax for the spike-rate vs. approximate entropy relationship were desflurane 0.5 (0.9), enflurane 17.2 (4.0), isoflurane 0.7 (1.2), and sevoflurane 5.3 (1.2) spikes/min. The spike rate caused by desflurane was similar to isoflurane and significantly lower than that of enflurane (P < 0.001), and sevoflurane (P = 0.009). CONCLUSION: Desflurane induces minimal cerebral cortical spike activity when administered to burst suppression, consistent with its low propensity for inducing seizures in non-epileptic brains. The agents can be ranked by their relative ability to cause spike activity: enflurane > sevoflurane > isoflurane = desflurane.     

Neuroprotective effects of propofol in a model of ischemic cortical cell cultures: role of glutamate and its transporters

BACKGROUND: During cerebral ischemia, excess of glutamate release and dysfunction of its high affinity transport induce an accumulation of extracellular glutamate, which plays an important role in neuronal death. The authors studied the relationship among propofol neuroprotection, glutamate extracellular concentrations, and glutamate transporter activity in a model of ischemic cortical cell cultures. METHODS: Thirteen-day-old primary cortical neuronal-glial cultures were exposed to a 90-min combined oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) in an anaerobic chamber, followed by reoxygenation. Propofol was added only during the OGD period, and its effect was compared to that of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonist dizocilpine (MK-801). Twenty-four hours after the injury, cell death was quantified by lactate dehydrogenase release and cell viability by reduction of 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT). Extracellular concentrations of glutamate in culture supernatants and glutamate uptake were performed at the end of OGD period by high-performance liquid chromatography and incorporation of l-[3H]glutamate into cells, respectively. RESULTS: At clinically relevant concentrations (0.05-10 microm), propofol offered protection equivalent to that of MK-801. It significantly reduced lactate dehydrogenase release and increased the reduction of MTT. At the end of the ischemic injury, propofol was able to reverse the OGD-induced increase in glutamate extracellular concentrations and decrease of glutamate uptake. The inhibition of the glial GLT1 transporter by 3-methyl-glutamate did not further modify the effect of propofol on glutamate uptake, suggesting that GLT1 was not the major target of propofol. CONCLUSION: Propofol showed a neuroprotective effect in this in vitro model of OGD, which was apparently mediated by a GLT1-independent restoration of the glutamate uptake impaired during the injury.     

大剂量氯胺酮致原代培养皮层神经元凋亡

目的观察不同剂量氯胺酮对突触快速生长期大鼠神经元的损伤作用。方法 0.01、0.1、1和2mmol/L氯胺酮（K1、K2、K3和K4组）及单纯培养基（C组）作用于体外原代培养第6天的大鼠神经元24h。药物洗脱24h后,通过MTT细胞还原检测、原位荧光TUNEL染色、LDH释放检测及电镜观察神经元损伤程度。结果与C组相比,K3和K4组神经元MTT显著降低（P〈0.05）,TUNEL阳性细胞百分比显著增高（P〈0.05）,电镜检查显示凋亡细胞增多。结论大剂量氯胺酮可致体外原代培养大鼠皮层神经元凋亡。     

Persistent cortical activity: mechanisms of generation and effects on neuronal excitability

Local cortical networks in the prefrontal cortex and visual cortex are capable of spontaneously generating sustained activity for periods of seconds or longer. This sustained activity is generated through recurrent excitation between pyramidal cells that is controlled by feedback inhibition and can have both a rapid onset and a rapid offset. The period of activity is associated with a marked increase in neuronal responsiveness to the intracellular injection of current pulses, especially those of smaller amplitude. Independently mimicking the depolarization, increase in membrane conductance and increase in noise associated with sustained activity revealed that the depolarization is largely responsible for the increase in neuronal responsiveness, although an increase in membrane noise also facilitates responses to small inputs. These results indicate that the persistent activity associated with the performance of working memory tasks may be generated largely through recurrent networks. They also suggest that feedback pathways, such as those involved in selective attention, may exert a powerful influence on neuronal responsiveness through synaptic bombardment.     

异氟醚对PC12细胞株细胞周期与凋亡的影响

目的 探讨异氟醚对PC12细胞株细胞周期与凋亡的影响.方法 经神经生长因子孵育7d的神经元样PC12细胞,培养于25 cm2培养瓶,采用随机数字表法,将其随机分为2组(n=6):对照组(C组)和异氟醚组(Ⅰ组).C组正常培养,Ⅰ组用1.2％异氟醚处理12 h.采用倒置相差光学显微镜观察细胞形态;收集细胞,采用流式细胞术测定细胞凋亡率、细胞周期、线粒体膜电位(MMP)及胞浆钙离子浓度([Ca2+]i).结果 与C组比较,Ⅰ组G0/G1期细胞比例减少,S期和G2/M期细胞比例增加,细胞凋亡率增加,MMP降低,[Ca2+];增加(P＜0.05).Ⅰ组细胞形态发生损伤变化.结论 1.2％异氟醚处理神经元样PC12细胞12 h,可异常启动细胞周期,致细胞发生凋亡.     

Inhibitory effects of isoflurane and nonimmobilizing halogenated compounds on neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

BACKGROUND: Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAchRs) are inhibited by low concentrations of volatile anesthetics. However, it is not clear whether this phenomenon contributes to the anesthetic effects of volatile anesthetics. Effects of a volatile anesthetic (isoflurane) and structurally related nonimmobilizers (F6: 1,2-dichlorohexafluorocyclobutane, F8: 2,3-dichlorooctafluorobutane) on the current mediated through neuronal nAchRs were studied. METHOD: This study investigated neuronal nAchRs in PC12 cells and acutely dissociated rat medial habenula (MHb) neurons. Whole cell currents elicited by 30 microm nicotine were recorded in the absence and presence of the halogenated agents. The minimum alveolar concentrations (MACs) for F6 and F8 were predicted from Meyer-Overton correlation. RESULTS: All halogenated compounds inhibited the nicotine-induced current in a concentration-dependent manner in PC12 cells. In MHb neurons, while isoflurane and F6 significantly inhibited the nicotine-induced peak current, F8 failed to inhibit it. The peak currents in the presence of isoflurane at 1.7 MAC, of F6 at 2.4 MAC, and of F8 at 2.2 MAC were 12, 31, and 97% of control, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Isoflurane, F6, and F8 inhibited ganglion-type nAchRs in PC12 cells independent from their abilities to produce the anesthetic state. In MHb neurons, isoflurane and F6, which lack the immobilizing effect but has the amnesic effect, inhibited nAchRs. Native brain nicotinic receptors in MHb neurons were almost insensitive to F8, which lacks both the immobilizing and the amnesic effect. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that inhibition of nAchRs in MHb neurons is not important for the anesthetic effect but may contribute to the amnesic effect of these agents.     

Differential effects of isoflurane/nitrous oxide on posterior tibial somatosensory evoked responses of cortical and subcortical origin

Posterior tibial somatosensory evoked responses (SSERs) were recorded during administration of isoflurane and nitrous oxide. Responses arising from cortical and subcortical neural generators were examined to compare their relative resistance to anesthetic-related degradation. Recordings were performed in ten adults during anesthesia with 0.5 MAC isoflurane/60% N2O, 1.0 MAC isoflurane/60% N2O, and 1.5 MAC isoflurane/60% N2O. Thereafter, N2O was omitted and recordings were repeated during anesthesia with 1.5 and 1.0 MAC isoflurane/O2. Isoflurane resulted in a significant (P less than 0.001) dose-related decrease in the amplitude of cortical waveforms. The amplitude loss was substantial; e.g., for the first cortical waveform, amplitude decreased from 1.21 +/- 0.67 microV during 0.5 MAC isoflurane/N2O to 0.28 +/- 0.29 microV during 1.5 MAC/N2O. Elimination of N2O resulted in an increase in amplitude of approximately 100% (P less than 0.04). By contrast, the amplitude of the subcortical response as recorded in vertex to linked mastoid and vertex to upper cervical spine derivations was not significantly altered by changing concentrations of isoflurane or N2O. The results suggest that subcortical SSERs may be preferable to those of cortical origin for spinal cord monitoring in situations where isoflurane and nitrous oxide, especially in varying concentrations, are the primary anesthetic agents.     

Differential effects of halothane and isoflurane on lumbar dorsal horn neuronal windup and excitability

Background. Windup of spinal nociceptive neurones may underlietemporal summation of pain, influencing the minimum alveolarconcentration (MAC) of anaesthetics required to prevent movementto supramaximal stimuli. We hypothesized that halothane andisoflurane would differentially affect windup of dorsal hornneurones. Methods. We recorded 18 nociceptive dorsal horn neurones exhibitingwindup to 1 Hz electrical hindpaw stimuli in rats. Effects of0.8 and 1.2 MAC isoflurane and halothane were recorded in thesame neurones (counterbalanced, crossover design). Windup wascalculated as the total number of C-fibre (100–400 mslatency) plus afterdischarge (400–1000 ms latency) spikes/20stimuli (area under curve, AUC) or absolute windup (C-fibreplus afterdischarge–20xinitial response). Results. Increasing isoflurane from 0.8 to1.2 MAC did not affectAUC, but increased absolute windup from 429 (62) to 618 (84)impulses/20 stimuli (P<0.05) and depressed the initial C-fibreresponse from 14 (3) to 8 (2) impulses (P<0.05). Increasinghalothane from 0.8 to1.2 MAC depressed AUC from 690 (79) to537 (65) impulses/20 stimuli (P<0.05) and the initial responsefrom 18 (2) to 13 (2) impulses (P<0.05), but absolute windupwas not affected. Absolute windup was 117% greater during 1.2MAC isoflurane compared with 1.2 MAC halothane. Conclusions. Windup was significantly greater under isofluranethan halothane anaesthesia at 1.2 MAC, whereas the initial C-fibreresponse was suppressed more by isoflurane. These findings suggestthat these two anaesthetics have mechanistically distinct effectson neuronal windup and excitability.     

In vitro effects of everolimus and intravenous immunoglobulin on cell proliferation and apoptosis induction in the mixed lymphocyte reaction

Targeting multiple pathways in the activation of alloimmune responses by multi-drug immunosuppressive regimens with complementary mechanisms of action enhances allograft survival and improves quality of life, owing to the reduction of adverse drug effects. In this report we investigated the effect of the combination of everolimus and intraveneous immunoglobulin (IVIG) on cell proliferation and apoptosis induction in human two-way mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR). Everolimus alone (0.1–50 ng/ml) and IVIG (1–10 mg/ml) alone inhibited cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner (16.4–67.2% and 12.1–66.3% inhibition, respectively). The inhibition by everolimus was not enhanced in the presence of 1 mg/ml IVIG. Addition of 10 and 50 ng/ml everolimus increased the inhibitory effect of 5 and 10 mg/ml IVIG, but only by 10–27%. Addition of 0.1 and 1 ng/ml everolimus did not increase IVIG's inhibitory effects. Apoptosis was significantly higher in IVIG (5 mg/ml)-treated CD19+ cells and less so in CD3+ cells as assessed by Annexin V and TUNEL assays. However, everolimus (0.1–50 ng/ml) did not induced apoptosis or alter apoptosis induced by IVIG. These results suggest that everolimus is a potent inhibitor of immune cell proliferation but does not act additively or synergistically with IVIG when analyzed in this in vitro system.     

Immunomodulatory effects of combination of pooled human gammaglobulin and rapamycin on cell proliferation and apoptosis in the mixed lymphocyte reaction

BACKGROUND: Multidrug immunosuppressive regimens benefit transplant recipients, reducing side effects and creating synergy between medications with different mechanisms of action. We have shown that pooled human gammaglobulin (intravenous immunoglobulin [IVIG]) inhibits the mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR) and induces apoptosis primarily in B cells. Rapamycin (RAPA), a potent macrolide immunosuppressant, inhibits B- and T-cell proliferation through G1 cell-cycle blockade and purportedly induces apoptosis. Here we examined the possible synergistic effects of IVIG and RAPA on cell proliferation and apoptosis induction in the MLR. METHODS: MLR was performed with IVIG (0.2-5 mg/mL), RAPA (0.02-40 ng/mL), alone or in combination. Cell proliferation was detected by H-thymidine incorporation, and apoptosis by Annexin V and terminal deoxynucleotide transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling flow cytometry. RESULTS: IVIG or RAPA inhibited cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. RAPA (0.02-40 ng/mL) in combination with IVIG (5 mg/mL) significantly augmented the inhibition compared with RAPA alone (70% vs. 34% at 0.2 ng/mL; 90% vs. 76% at 2 ng/mL). Apoptosis was significantly higher in IVIG-treated (5 mg/mL) CD19+ cells and less so in CD3+ cells. However, RAPA (0.2-40 ng/mL) neither induced apoptosis nor altered apoptosis induced by IVIG. CONCLUSIONS: Combined RAPA and IVIG at subtherapeutic concentrations inhibits cell proliferation in the MLR. RAPA neither induces apoptosis nor augments apoptosis induced by IVIG in the MLR. Lower-concentration RAPA (0.2-2 ng/mL) in combination with IVIG (5 mg/mL) versus therapeutic levels (2-50 ng/mL and 10-40 mg/mL, respectively) could represent an effective immunomodulatory drug combination.     

Lidocaine-induced cell death in a human model of neuronal apoptosis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Clinical studies suggest that lidocaine may induce irreversible neurological damage after spinal application in human beings. The mechanisms underlying the possible cytotoxic action of lidocaine have only been suggested from animal studies. This study aimed to investigate if lidocaine exhibited cytotoxic action in a human model widely used for the study of neuronal apoptosis. This is important to know as it may help one to judge on possible neurotoxic risks imposed by the spinal application of lidocaine. METHODS: The concentration- and time-dependent effects of lidocaine on retinoic acid-differentiated human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells were quantified by trypan blue staining, the release of lactate dehydrogenase, immunocytochemistry and flow cytometry. RESULTS: The local anaesthetic caused a significant increase in the number of cells staining positive for trypan blue, a significant increase of LDH release into the incubation medium, and a significant increase of 7AAD and annexin V binding. Lidocaine induced apoptosis already at 3 mm. At a concentration of 10 mmol 47% of the cells and at 30 mmol 98% of the cell population was necrotic. Both necrosis and apoptosis were time-dependent. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate that lidocaine exhibited neurotoxic effects in a human model established for the study of drug-induced neuronal apoptosis. The results were consistent with the neurotoxic clinical effects of lidocaine. These effects may be produced by more than a single mechanism.     

Myocardial ischaemic/reperfusion injury in the anaesthetized rabbit: comparative effects of halothane and isoflurane

The effects of halothane and isoflurane anaesthesia on myocardial injury in rabbits subjected to coronary artery ligation and subsequent reperfusion were analyzed. Although halothane and isoflurane (at inspired concentrations of 1.0 and 1.5 per cent, respectively) exerted comparable effects on cardiovascular status during ischaemic and reperfusion phases, greater preservation of subcellular integrity (as assessed by mitochondrial and sarcoplasmic reticular ATPase activities and myocardial ionic alterations) and a lower incidence of ventricular fibrillation and severe hypotension occurred with halothane. Our results indicate that in studies of experimental myocardial ischaemia anaesthetics may, independently of cardiovascular actions, influence the nature and extent of resulting injury, possibly by virtue of their differing effects on subcellular membrane systems.     

Myocardial ischaemic/ reperfusion injury in the anaesthetized rabbit: comparative effects of halothane and isoflurane

The effects of halothane and isoflurane anaesthesia on myocardial injury in rabbits subjected to coronary artery ligation and subsequent reperfusion were analyzed. Although halothane and isoflurane (at inspired concentrations of 1.0 and 1.5 per cent, respectively) exerted comparable effects on cardiovascular status during ischaemic and reperfusion phases, greater preservation of subcellular integrity (as assessed by mitochondrial and sarcoplasmic reticular ATPase activities and myocardial ionic alterations) and a lower incidence of ventricular fibrillation and severe hypotension occurred with halothane. Our results indicate that in studies of experimental myocardial ischaemia anaesthetics may, independently of cardiovascular actions, influence the nature and extent of resulting injury, possibly by virtue of their differing effects on subcellular membrane systems.     

Assessment of mixed lymphocyte reactivity in human bone marrow cell cultures

The use of monoclonal anti-T-cell antibodies has been proposed as a means of eliminating T cells from bone marrow inocula, and thereby avoiding graft-versus-host reactions following transplantation. Since the mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR) provides a measurement of alloreactive mature T cells, we have attempted to apply this assay to bone marrow populations before and after treatment with anti-T-cell antibodies and complement. However, initial studies showed MLR to be very difficult to measure using bone marrow as a responder cell population, and a systematic analysis of the reasons for this difficulty was therefore carried out. The first major problem in performance of standard one-way MLRs using bone marrow responder cells was found to be due to the presence of numerous non-T marrow cells that maintained high levels of background proliferation. Proliferation of these populations was found to be variable during MLR culture, leading to aberrant results. This problem was overcome by removing the rapidly proliferating population of marrow cells either by density centrifugation or by susceptibility to cryopreservation and thawing. A second problem causing variability even after removal of these proliferating cells was found to be due to additional non-T cells in the marrow that responded to soluble mediators produced by peripheral blood lymphocyte stimulator cells during an MLR. Such non-T-cell stimulation was not eliminated by removal of bone marrow T cells, obscuring the results of T cell depletion of the marrow. This problem was overcome by the use of HLA-defined B cell lines as stimulators. A mixture of such lines provided a reliable stimulator source that did not produce soluble mediators capable of stimulating additional marrow cells. These refinements of MLR conditions permit a reproducible and reliable assay of bone marrow MLR, and provide a means for assessment of elimination of such alloreactive cells by monoclonal antibodies and complement.