Genetic comparison of liver flukes, Clonorchis sinensis and Opisthorchis viverrini, based on rDNA and mtDNA gene sequences

To clarify the genetic relationships between Clonorchis sinensis and Opisthorchis viverrini, patterns of inter-/intraspecific polymorphism were compared for four markers with nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in liver flukes C. sinensis from Korea (Kimhae) and China (Shenyang and Nanning) and O. viverrini from Laos (Savannakhet). Intra- and interspecific variations in the 18S, ITS2, and 28S rDNA and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCOI) of mtDNA gene sequences were low and nearly identical. Three isolates of C. sinensis showed a high similarity (99–100%). No variation was detectable in the ITS2 sequence for the C. sinensis from Korea and China. ITS2 region sequences of O. viverrini vs C. sinensis showed 95% identity and differed at 28 nucleotide positions. Pairwise sequence divergence with three C. sinensis isolates and O. viverrini ranged from 0 to 3.94% in mtCOI gene. The mtCOI sequences were more highly conserved relative to the ITS2 sequences. These genetic data from different geographical areas showed that the liver flukes are not variable and are virtually identical almost despite belonging to entirely different genera.     

Development of mitochondrial loop-mediated isothermal amplification for detection of the small liver fluke Opisthorchis viverrini (Opisthorchiidae; Trematoda; Platyhelminthes)

Mitochondrial DNA sequences offer major advantages over the more usual nuclear targets for loop-mediated isothermal amplification approaches (mito-LAMP) because multiple copies occur in every cell. Four LAMP primers [F3, FIP(F1c+F2), BIP(B1c+B2), and B3] were designed based on the mitochondrial nad1 sequence of Opisthorchis viverrini and used for a highly specific assay (mito-OvLAMP) to distinguish DNA of O. viverrini from that of another opisthorchiid (Clonorchis sinensis) and other trematodes (Haplorchis pumilio, Haplorchis taichui, Fasciola hepatica, and Fasciola gigantica). Conventional PCR was applied using F3/B3 primer pairs to verify the specificity of the primers for O. viverrini DNA templates. All LAMP-positive samples could be detected with the naked eye in sunlight, by gel electrophoresis (stained with ethidium bromide), and by addition of SYBR green I to the product in sunlight or under UV light. Only DNA from O. viverrini yielded amplification products by LAMP (and by PCR verification), and the LAMP limit of detection was as little as 100 fg (10(-4) ng DNA), indicating that this assay is 10 to 100 times more sensitive than PCR. Field testing was done using representative egg and metacercarial samples collected from localities where the fluke is endemic. With the advantages of simplicity, rapidity, sensitivity, and cost effectiveness, mito-OvLAMP is a good tool for molecular detection and epidemiology studies in regions or countries where O. viverrini is endemic, which can lead to more effective control of opisthorchiasis and trematodiasis.     

Study on the surface morphology of the developmental stages of the liver fluke, Opisthorchis viverrini (Trematoda: Opisthorchiidae).

The external morphology of some developmental stages of the fluke Opisthorchis viverrini (Trematoda: Opisthorchiidae), parasitizing humans in Southeast Asia was studied for the first time using electron microscopy. The surface structure of the egg, as well as the rediae, cercaria, metacercaria, and adult found in naturally infected hosts from Laos are described herein and their morphological characteristics discussed.     

Characterization of cysteine proteases from the carcinogenic liver fluke, Opisthorchis viverrini

Protease activities in extracts of Opisthorchis viverrini were investigated using gelatin zymography and fluorogenic peptide substrates. Using gelatin-impregnated X-ray film, 2 μg of O. viverrini excretory–secretory products (Ov-ES) and adult somatic extract (Ov-SE) showed proteolytic activity. Zymography of both O. viverrini extracts revealed bands at ~30 kDa. Using fluorogenic peptide substrates, the majority of O. viverrini activity was determined to be cathepsin L-like cysteine protease (cleaved Z–Phe–Arg–aminomethylcoumarin (AMC)) whereas little or no activity was ascribable to other classes of proteases. The O. viverrini cysteine protease activity was greatest at pH 6.0 and the activity was inhibited by the class-specific inhibitors, E-64 and Z–Ala–CHN₂. Chromatographic purification of O. viverrini cysteine proteases on thiol-sepharose enriched for protein(s) of ~30 kDa from Ov-ES and Ov-SE. The activity profile of the purified enzyme was similar to that of the cathepsin L-like activity characterized in Ov-SE and Ov-ES. Furthermore, determination of cysteine protease activity in several developmental stages of the parasite revealed the highest protease activity in metacercariae soluble extract, followed by Ov-ES, egg soluble extract, and Ov-SE. These findings demonstrated that O. viverrini has a cathepsin L-like cysteine protease(s) and suggested that abundant cysteine protease activity was present in metacercariae where the hydrolase might be involved in cyst excystation during mammalian infection.     

Rapid detection and differentiation of Clonorchis sinensis and Opisthorchis viverrini eggs in human fecal samples using a duplex real-time fluorescence resonance energy transfer PCR and melting curve analysis

We developed a single step duplex real-time fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) PCR merged with melting curve analysis for the fast detection and differentiation of Clonorchis sinensis and Opisthorchis viverrini eggs in human fecal samples. Two species of mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 (nad2) DNA elements, the 165-bp nad2 product of C. sinensis and the 209-bp nad2 product of O. viverrini, were amplified by species-specific primers, and the fluorescence melting curve analyses were generated from hybrid of amplicons and two pairs of species-specific fluorophore-labeled probes. By their different fluorescence channels and melting temperatures, both C. sinensis and O. viverrini eggs in infected human fecal samples were detected and differentiated with high (100%) sensitivity and specificity. Detection limit was as little as a single C. sinensis egg and two O. viverrini eggs in 100 mg of fecal sample. The assay could distinguish the DNA of both parasites from the DNA of negative fecal samples and fecal samples with other parasitosis, as well as from the well-defined genomic DNA of human leukocytes and other parasites. It can reduce labor time of microscopic examination and is not prone to carry over contamination of agarose electrophoresis. Our duplex real-time FRET PCR method would be useful to determine the accurate range of endemic areas and/or to discover the co-endemic areas of two liver flukes, C. sinensis and O. viverrini, in Asia. This method also would be helpful for the differential diagnosis of the suspected cases of liver fluke infections among travelers who had visited the endemic countries of those parasites.     

Pathology and immunology of Clonorchis sinensis infection of the liver

The existence of clonorchiasis cases among the Asian immigrants and the major clinical and pathologic features encountered in those patients is emphasized. Owing to the longevity of the parasite, clinical symptoms may occur long after endemic exposure. The common manifestations among the immigrants are recurrent pyogenic cholangitis and pancreatitis. The relationship between clonorchiasis and cholangiocarcinoma and the possible pathogenesis of this tumor are discussed. The specific immunologic phenomenon in clonorchiasis is described.     

Light and electron microscopy observations of embryogenesis and egg development in the human liver fluke, Opisthorchis viverrini (Platyhelminthes, Digenea)

Eggs of most species digenean flukes hatch in the external environment to liberate larvae that seek and penetrate a snail intermediate host. Those of the human liver flukes, Opisthorchis viverrini, hatch within the gastrointestinal canal of their snail hosts. While adult parasites are primarily responsible for the pathology in cases of human opisthorchiasis, their eggs also contribute by inducing granulomata and in serving as nidi for gallstone formation. In view of the peculiar biology of O. viverrini eggs and their contribution to pathology, we investigated embryogenesis in this species by light and transmission electron microscopy. Egg development was traced from earliest stages of coalescence in the ootype until full embryonation in the distal region of the uterus. Fully mature eggs were generally impermeable to resin and could not be examined by conventional electron microscopy methods. However, the use of high-pressure freezing and freeze-substitution fixation of previously fixed eggs enabled the internal structure of mature eggs, particularly the subshell envelopes, to be elucidated. Fertilization occurs in the ootype, and the large zygote is seen therein with a single spermatozoon wrapped around its plasma membrane. As the zygote begins to divide, the spent vitellocytes are pushed to the periphery of the eggs, where they progressively degrade. The early eggshell is formed in the ootype by coalescing eggshell precursor material released by approximately six vitelline cells. The early eggs have a thinner eggshell and are larger than, but lack the characteristic shape of, mature eggs. Characteristic shell ornamentation, the "muskmelon" appearance of eggs, appears after eggshell polymerization in the ootype. Pores are not present in the shell of O. viverrini eggs. The inner and outer envelopes are poorly formed in this species, with the outer envelope evident beneath the eggshell at the opercular pole of the mature egg. The miracidium has a conical anterior end that lacks the distinctive lamellar appearance of the terebratorium of other digeneans, such as the schistosomes. The miracidium is richly glandular, containing an apical gland in the anterior end, large cephalic gland, and posterior secretory glands. Each gland contains a secretory product with different structure. The paucity of vitelline cells associating with eggs, the reduced size of eggs, and reduced complexity of the extraembryonic envelopes are interpreted as adaptations to the peculiar hatching biology of the miracidia.     

Characterization of the antioxidant enzyme, thioredoxin peroxidase, from the carcinogenic human liver fluke, Opisthorchis viverrini

The human liver fluke, Opisthorchis viverrini, induces inflammation of the hepatobiliary system. Despite being constantly exposed to inimical oxygen radicals released from inflammatory cells, the parasite survives for many years. The mechanisms by which it avoids oxidative damage are unknown. In this study, thioredoxin peroxidase (TPx), a member of the peroxiredoxin superfamily, was cloned from an O. viverrini cDNA library. O. viverrini TPx cDNA encoded a polypeptide of 212 amino acid residues, of molecular mass 23.57kDa. The putative amino acid sequence shared 60-70% identity with TPXs from other helminths and from mammals, and phylogenetic analysis revealed a close relationship between TPxs from O. viverrini and other trematodes. Recombinant O. viverrini TPx was expressed as soluble protein in Escherichia coli. The recombinant protein dimerized, and its antioxidant activity was deduced by observing protection of nicking of supercoiled plasmid DNA by hydroxyl radicals. Antiserum raised against O. viverrini TPx recognized native proteins from egg, metacercaria and adult developmental stages of the liver fluke and excretory-secretory products released by adult O. viverrini. Immunolocalization studies revealed ubiquitous expression of TPx in O. viverrini organs and tissues. TPx was also detected in bile fluid and bile duct epithelial cells surrounding the flukes 2 weeks after infection of hamsters with O. viverrini. In addition, TPx was observed in the secondary (small) bile ducts where flukes cannot reach due to their large size. These results suggested that O. viverrini TPx plays a significant role in protecting the parasite against damage induced by reactive oxygen species from inflammation.     

Morphology and ultrastructure of the digestive gland ofBithynia siamensis goniomphalus (Prosobranchia: Bithyniidae) and alterations induced by infection with the liver flukeOpisthorchis viverrini (Trematoda: Digenea)

The morphology and ultrastructure of the digestive gland ofBithynia siamensis goniomphalus and its alteration by infection withOpisthorchis viverrini were investigated by light and electron microscopy. The digestive gland ofB. s. goniomphalus was composed of three different cell types: digestive cells, excretory cells, and narrow cells. In infected animals the number of excretory cells increased dramatically. Cellular injury in digestive cells as well as in excretory cells following the infection could be observed at the ultrastructural level.     

Expressed sequence tag analysis of adult Clonorchis sinensis, the Chinese liver fluke

Expressed sequence tag (EST) pools represent partial profiles of the gene expressions of organisms. In an effort to construct a Clonorchis sinensis EST pool, 2,387 ESTs were collected from an adult C. sinensis cDNA library and assembled into 1,573 clusters. Of these clusters, 1,225 ESTs (51%) were singletons and 348 clusters consisted of more than two ESTs. There were 848 clusters (54%) that shared significant identity with previously reported proteins, and of these, 401 clusters were categorized into 11 major functional protein classes. Three cDNA clones of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP) aldolase were selected from the C. sinensis EST pool and analyzed for phylogenic clustering. FBP clones encoded a complete polypeptide, which shared significant identity to those of vertebrate and invertebrate animals and clustered with those of trematodes. We believe that the EST pool described can be confidently used as a platform in multigene researches on C. sinensis gene expression.     

华支睾吸虫成虫RPEF基因产物及其抗RPEF多克隆抗体的制备

目的 体外制备华支睾吸虫成虫RNA聚合酶Ⅱ延长因子(RPEF)基因产物及抗RPEF多克隆抗体.方法 亲和纯化试剂盒纯化表达蛋白pGEX-4T-1-RPEF,凝血酶酶切表达蛋白制备重组蛋白RPEF,将重组蛋白RPEF免疫小鼠,制备多克隆抗血清,检测抗体滴度和抗血清特异性.结果 体外制备的RPEF蛋白经SDS电泳呈单一条带;酶联免疫吸附结果显示,免疫过程抗体滴度呈连续上升趋势;免疫印迹结果显示,小鼠抗血清具有抗RPEF特异性.结论 获得较专一的华支睾吸虫RPEF蛋白和RPEF抗血清.     

华支睾吸虫成虫RPEF基因产物及其抗RPEF多克隆抗体的制备

目的 体外制备华支睾吸虫成虫RNA聚合酶Ⅱ延长因子(RPEF)基因产物及抗RPEF多克隆抗体.方法 亲和纯化试剂盒纯化表达蛋白pGEX-4T-1-RPEF,凝血酶酶切表达蛋白制备重组蛋白RPEF,将重组蛋白RPEF免疫小鼠,制备多克隆抗血清,检测抗体滴度和抗血清特异性.结果 体外制备的RPEF蛋白经SDS电泳呈单一条带;酶联免疫吸附结果显示,免疫过程抗体滴度呈连续上升趋势;免疫印迹结果显示,小鼠抗血清具有抗RPEF特异性.结论 获得较专一的华支睾吸虫RPEF蛋白和RPEF抗血清.     

华支睾吸虫成虫RPEF基因产物及其抗RPEF多克隆抗体的制备

目的体外制备华支睾吸虫成虫RNA聚合酶Ⅱ延长因子（RPEF）基因产物及抗RPEF多克隆抗体。方法亲和纯化试剂盒纯化表达蛋白pGEx4T-1,RPEF,凝血酶酶切表达蛋白制备重组蛋白RPEF,将重组蛋白RPEF免疫小鼠,制备多克隆抗血清,检测抗体滴度和抗血清特异性。结果体外制备的RPEF蛋白经SDS电泳呈单一条带;酶联免疫吸附结果显示,免疫过程抗体滴度呈连续上升趋势;免疫印迹结果显示,小鼠抗血清具有抗RPEF特异性。结论获得较专一的华支睾吸虫RPEF蛋白和RPEF抗血清。     

华支睾吸虫成虫RPEF基因产物及其抗RPEF多克隆抗体的制备

目的 体外制备华支睾吸虫成虫RNA聚合酶Ⅱ延长因子(RPEF)基因产物及抗RPEF多克隆抗体.方法 亲和纯化试剂盒纯化表达蛋白pGEX-4T-1-RPEF,凝血酶酶切表达蛋白制备重组蛋白RPEF,将重组蛋白RPEF免疫小鼠,制备多克隆抗血清,检测抗体滴度和抗血清特异性.结果 体外制备的RPEF蛋白经SDS电泳呈单一条带;酶联免疫吸附结果显示,免疫过程抗体滴度呈连续上升趋势;免疫印迹结果显示,小鼠抗血清具有抗RPEF特异性.结论 获得较专一的华支睾吸虫RPEF蛋白和RPEF抗血清.     

华支睾吸虫成虫RPEF基因产物及其抗RPEF多克隆抗体的制备

目的 体外制备华支睾吸虫成虫RNA聚合酶Ⅱ延长因子(RPEF)基因产物及抗RPEF多克隆抗体.方法 亲和纯化试剂盒纯化表达蛋白pGEX-4T-1-RPEF,凝血酶酶切表达蛋白制备重组蛋白RPEF,将重组蛋白RPEF免疫小鼠,制备多克隆抗血清,检测抗体滴度和抗血清特异性.结果 体外制备的RPEF蛋白经SDS电泳呈单一条带;酶联免疫吸附结果显示,免疫过程抗体滴度呈连续上升趋势;免疫印迹结果显示,小鼠抗血清具有抗RPEF特异性.结论 获得较专一的华支睾吸虫RPEF蛋白和RPEF抗血清.     

华支睾吸虫成虫RPEF基因产物及其抗RPEF多克隆抗体的制备

目的 体外制备华支睾吸虫成虫RNA聚合酶Ⅱ延长因子(RPEF)基因产物及抗RPEF多克隆抗体.方法 亲和纯化试剂盒纯化表达蛋白pGEX-4T-1-RPEF,凝血酶酶切表达蛋白制备重组蛋白RPEF,将重组蛋白RPEF免疫小鼠,制备多克隆抗血清,检测抗体滴度和抗血清特异性.结果 体外制备的RPEF蛋白经SDS电泳呈单一条带;酶联免疫吸附结果显示,免疫过程抗体滴度呈连续上升趋势;免疫印迹结果显示,小鼠抗血清具有抗RPEF特异性.结论 获得较专一的华支睾吸虫RPEF蛋白和RPEF抗血清.     

华支睾吸虫成虫RPEF基因产物及其抗RPEF多克隆抗体的制备

目的 体外制备华支睾吸虫成虫RNA聚合酶Ⅱ延长因子(RPEF)基因产物及抗RPEF多克隆抗体.方法 亲和纯化试剂盒纯化表达蛋白pGEX-4T-1-RPEF,凝血酶酶切表达蛋白制备重组蛋白RPEF,将重组蛋白RPEF免疫小鼠,制备多克隆抗血清,检测抗体滴度和抗血清特异性.结果 体外制备的RPEF蛋白经SDS电泳呈单一条带;酶联免疫吸附结果显示,免疫过程抗体滴度呈连续上升趋势;免疫印迹结果显示,小鼠抗血清具有抗RPEF特异性.结论 获得较专一的华支睾吸虫RPEF蛋白和RPEF抗血清.