Prediction of physical fitness and physical activity level in adulthood by physical performance and physical activity in adolescence - An 18-year follow-up study

Barnekow-Bergkvist M, Hedberg G, Janlert U, Jansson E. Prediction of physical fitness and physical activity level in adulthood by physical performance and physical activity in adolescence - An 18-year follow-up study. The aim of the study was to investigate relationships between physical fitness and self-reported physical activity in adulthood and to what extent the level of physical fitness and leisure-time physical activity in adulthood can be explained by anthropometric measures, physical performance, physical activity, attitudes to sports activities and socio-demographic characteristics at the age of 16. A group of 157 men and 121 women was tested at the ages of 16 and 34 by means of questionnaires and fitness tests. Physically active men and women had higher estimated VO_{2 max} and performed better in curl ups and bench press than those who were inactive. Performance in physical tests, height, weight and physical activity at the age of 16 contributed best to explain adult physical performance and physical activity. The magnitude of explanation varied between 10% (9-min run test) and 56% (bench press test); it was in general lower in the men than in the women. The various fitness tests and physical activity were explained by different predictors and the predictors also differed between men and women. The findings about attitudes to sports and socio-demographic factors at a young age that influence adult physical activity habits and fitness are very complex and further research is required to identify specific inactivity risks.     

Physical activity and performance in a random sample of adolescents attending school in Denmark

Physical activity, aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle endurance and flexibility were measured in 550 boys and 710 girls, 15–19 years of age, randomly selected among adolescents attending school in Denmark. A lower level of physical activity was expected with higher age, based on an earlier report from Sweden. Other types of physical activity than sports decreased with age, but no difference was found between age groups in sport activity, neither in hours per week or percentage of subjects participating in sports. Strength increased in both genders with increasing age and no difference was found in muscle endurance. In boys, aerobic working capacity increased with increasing age, but in relation to body weight, no difference was found between age groups. In girls, aerobic working capacity (1 · min⁻¹) did not differ between age groups, but body weight was higher with higher age. Flexibility increased with age in boys, and did not differ between age groups in girls. Marked differences were found between subjects attending different types of school. High school (gymnasium) students participated more in leisure-time sport and had higher physical performance than students from trade or vocational schools. Evaluating different levels of sport participation, i. e., 3 levels of competition, sport for health and no sport activity, no systematic difference in fitness was found between the groups of sport participants. A lower fitness level was found in the group of non-sport participants. No difference was found between age groups in sport activity. The fitness level increased in boys with age and did not change in girls.     

Associations between physical activity,body composition,and physical fitness in the transition from preschool to school

The purpose of the study was to assess the longitudinal associations of physical activity (PA) with body composition and physical fitness (PF) at the 12-month follow-up during the transition from kindergarten to school in Estonian children aged 6 to 8 years (n = 147). PA and sedentary behavior (SB) were assessed using the accelerometer. Body composition was measured from triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses and PF using PREFIT test battery. SB at the mean age of 6.6 year had negative relation with upper and lower body strength and motor fitness at the mean age of 7.6 year in adjusted models. Light PA (LPA) and moderate PA(MPA) at 6.6 year were positively and SB was negatively associated with fat-free mass index (FFMI) at 7.6 year after adjustments for confounders [vigorous PA (VPA), total awake wear time, child's sex, age at measurement]. Substituting 5 min/d of SB at 6.6 year with 5 min of VPA was related to higher FFMI at 7.6 year. In adjusted models, VPA at 6.6 year was positively associated with cardiorespiratory fitness at 7.6 year, greater baseline VPA or moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) predicted greater upper body strength a year later and LPA, MPA, VPA, MVPA at 6.6 year were positively related to lower body strength at follow-up. In adjusted analysis greater VPA at 6.6 year was related to better motor fitness at follow-up. Promoting higher-intensity PA and reducing SB at preschool may have long-term effects on body composition and PF in children at the first grade.     

Longitudinal physical activity trajectories from childhood to adulthood and their determinants: The Young Finns Study

Determining lifelong physical activity (PA) trajectories and their determinants is essential to promote a physically active lifestyle throughout the life‐course. We aimed to identify PA trajectories from childhood to midlife and their determinants in a longitudinal population‐based cohort. This study is a part of the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. From 1980, a population‐based cohort (N = 3596; 1764 boys/1832 girls, age 3‐18 years) has been followed up for 31 years. PA indices were formed based on self‐reported data (between age 9‐49 years) on frequency, duration, and intensity of leisure (during childhood) or high‐intensity (at later age) PA and on sports club participation/competitions. PA trajectories were analyzed using group‐based trajectory modeling. Childhood (age 12 years), young adulthood (age 24 years), and early midlife (age 37 years) determinants were analyzed. Five PA trajectories were identified: persistently active (6.6%), decreasingly active (13.9%), increasingly active (13.5%), persistently low active (51.4%, reference group), persistently inactive (14.6%). In childhood, rural residential area (OR 0.45, 95% CI 0.21‐0.96) and high academic performance (OR 2.18; 95% CI 1.58‐3.00) associated with persistently active group. In early midlife, smoking (OR 1.66; 95% CI 1.07‐2.58) associated with persistently inactive group, regular alcohol drinking (OR 2.91; 95% CI 1.12‐7.55) with persistently active group and having children (OR 2.07; 95% CI 1.27‐3.38) with decreasingly active group. High adulthood education associated with both decreasingly (OR 1.87; 95% CI 1.05‐3.35) and increasingly (OR 2.09; 95% CI 1.19‐3.68) active groups. We identified five PA trajectories from childhood into midlife. Most prominent determinants were academic achievement, education, having children and health habits (i.e. smoking/alcohol use).     

Changes from 1986 to 2006 in reasons for liking leisure‐time physical activity among adolescents

Reasons for participating in physical activity (PA) may have changed in accordance with the general modernization of society. The aim is to examine changes in self‐reported reasons for liking leisure‐time physical activity (LTPA) and their association with self‐reported LTPA over a 20‐year period. Data were collected among nationally representative samples of 13‐year‐olds in Finland, Norway, and Wales in 1986 and 2006 (N = 9252) as part of the WHO cross‐national Health Behaviour in School‐aged Children (HBSC) study. Univariate ANOVAs to establish differences according to gender, year, and country were conducted. In all countries, 13‐year‐olds in 2006 tended to report higher importance in terms of achievement and social reasons than their counterparts in 1986, while changes in health reasons were minor. These reasons were associated with LTPA in a similar way at both time points. Health reasons for liking LTPA were considered most important, and were the strongest predictor of LTPA. The findings seem robust as they were consistent across countries and genders. Health education constitutes the most viable strategy for promoting adolescents' motivation for PA, and interventions and educational efforts could be improved by an increased focus on LTPA and sport as a social activity.     

Trends of health-related physical activity in Finland: 10-year follow-up of an adult cohort in eastern Finland

The health-related physical activity of Finns was studied during the 1980s by analysing changes in activity in a 10-year follow-up of a representative population cohort aged 20–65 years at the onset of the study. The proportion of apparently healthy people exercising at least twice a week for fitness and health increased from about 40% to over 50%. The increase was particularly large among women and young people. Occupational physical activity, education and marital status did not affect the trends. In contrast, regular vigorous exercise remained unchanged. These findings are consistent with other observations showing a steady increase in health-related physical activity among adult Finns during the past 20 years. However, in terms of the health potential of exercise, a majority of the population remains less than optimally active.     

The effect of a physical activity education programme on physical activity, fitness, quality of life and attitudes to exercise in obese females

Obesity has reached epidemic proportions worldwide. Decline in physical activity has occurred simultaneously or before the increase in obesity. The aim of this pilot study was to investigate the effect of a physical activity group-based education programme delivered by a Physiotherapist on weight, physical activity, cardiovascular fitness, quality of life and attitudes to exercise in obese females. A sample of 18 obese Irish females (mean age 37.6 years, mean weight 117.9kg), took part in this study. The participants attended four physical activity education sessions in groups of 6-8, 1 month apart. Outcome measures were Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) measured by the Incremental Shuttle Walk test (ISWT) International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form (IPAQ-Short) Impact of Weight on Quality of Life Questionnaire-Short Form (IWQOL-Lite), and a questionnaire adapted from the EU survey on Consumer Attitudes to Physical Activity. There were no significant decreases in participants' weight (p=0.444) and there were no significant improvements in IPAQ (p=0.496) and IWQOL-Lite scores (p=0.337). There were significant improvements in CRF (p<0.0002). Attitudes towards exercise improved as shown by decreased barriers to exercise, i.e. decreased shyness (17%) and increased energy (22%) and increased enjoyment (22%). A group education programme focusing on physical activity alone demonstrated a significant increase in CRF (ISWT) and had a positive influence on attitudes to exercise. Longer duration interventions may allow participants to make the necessary lifestyle changes to achieve weight loss.     

Correlates of physical activity in Portuguese adolescents from 10 to 18 years

This study examined the association between demographic [age, sex, socioeconomic status (SES)] and socio‐cultural [father, mother, sibling physical activity (PA); peers and physical education teacher influences] correlates and low, moderate and high levels of PA among Portuguese adolescents aged 10–18 years. A total of 3352 males and females attending basic and secondary schools, their parents and siblings were sampled across four regions of Portugal. PA was assessed with a psychometrically validated questionnaire. Multinomial logistic regression was used. Age was positively related with moderate and high PA. Boys and adolescents of high SES were more likely to participate in moderate and high PA. Adolescents were more likely to participate in high PA when theirs mother and sibling(s) also participated. Peers had a positive influence on participation in moderate and high PA, while physical education teachers did not have an influence. The results indicated that demographic and socio‐cultural correlates – in particular age, sex, SES, mother and sibling PA, and peer influence – were significantly associated with adolescent PA. These results also suggested that interventions should focus on girls and low SES adolescents who face higher risk of inactivity.     

Stability of habitual physical activity and sport participation: a longitudinal tracking study

Although one of the most important aims of physical education and public sport policy is to encourage life-long habitual physical activity, very little is known of the stability or tracking of physical activity. As a part of a larger research project called Cardiovascular Risks in Young Finns, the purpose of the study reported here was to investigate the stability (tracking) of leisuretime physical activity and sport participation at intervals of 3, 6, 9 and 12 years from age 9 to 30. The subjects, chosen by stratified random sample, represent five geographical areas of the country and eight gender-age cohorts (9, 12, 15 and 18 years old in 1980). Physical activity and sport participation were measured using a short questionnaire. Tracking was analysed by Spearman's rank order correlations and by simplex model. The tracking correlations within a 3-year interval of all individual variables were significant but rather low. The tracking correlations of the sum index of physical activity comprising five variables varied from 0.50 to 0.80 among boys and from 0.40 to 0.61 among girls. Simplex models that fitted the data very well showed higher stability coefficients than rank order correlations. With one exception the correlations of physical activity index within the 12-year interval were significant but low.     

Daily physical activity related to aerobic fitness and body fat in an urban sample of children

This study evaluates associations between objectively measured daily physical activity vs aerobic fitness and body fat in children aged 8-11 years. A cross-sectional study of 225 children aged 7.9-11.1 years was performed. Abdominal fat mass (AFM) and total body fat (TBF) were quantified by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. TBF was calculated as percentage of total body mass (BF%). Body fat distribution was calculated as AFM/TBF. Aerobic fitness was measured by indirect calorimetry during a maximal cycle ergometer exercise test. Daily physical activity was assessed by accelerometers for 4 days and daily accumulation of moderate-to-vigorous and vigorous activity was calculated. Significant relationships (P<0.05) existed for vigorous activity vs ln BF% (r=-0.40), ln AFM (r=-0.35), TBF/AFM (r=-0.22) and aerobic fitness (r=0.38), whereas moderate-to-vigorous activity displayed weaker relationships (-0.22, -0.18, -0.12 NS, and 0.25). Multiple regression analyses with inclusion of possible confounders concluded that vigorous activity was independently related to aerobic fitness and ln BF% or ln AFM. Moderate-to-vigorous activity was only independently related to aerobic fitness. In this population, low daily accumulation of vigorous activity was, already in children aged 8-11 years, associated with more body fat and lower aerobic fitness. A similar relation was not found for daily accumulation of moderate-to-vigorous activity.     

Physical fitness and physical activity during adolescence as predictors of cardiovascular disease risk in young adulthood. Danish Youth and Sports Study. An eight-year follow-up study

The purpose of this study was to determine if physical activity, aerobic fitness and isometric strength during adolescence were predictors of cardiovascular risk factor levels in young adulthood. The following measurements were carried out: maximal oxygen uptake (VO(2)max), maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) in four muscle groups, physical activity (questionnaire), blood pressure (BP), total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), triglycerides, anthropometric variables and body fat % (sum of four skinfolds). The data were collected from the Danish Youth and Sports study, an observational longitudinal study in which two measurements were carried out over an eight-year period. The findings in this study indicated that the relationships between the absolute levels of physical fitness and activity in adolescence and the subsequent level of CVD risk factors are weak. However, the changes in physical fitness and physical activity were related to the absolute levels of CVD risk factors in young adulthood, especially in men. Weak relationships were found between the changes in physical fitness/activity and changes in CVD risk factor levels in both sexes. In conclusion, many subjects changed their levels of physical activity and physical fitness between adolescence and young adulthood and the changes, especially in aerobic fitness, seemed to be the best predictor of CVD risk factor levels in young adulthood.     

Metabolic risk profile of schoolchildren and joint physical activity with an adult in the household: Multilevel analysis

We aim to examine the relationship between metabolic risk (MR) profile and physical activity (PA) with an adult within the household. A total of 4761 schoolchildren (54% boys) aged 10–16 years old were categorized as either at high MR or low MR profile based on their weight and systolic blood pressure status. We assessed the frequency of PA with an adult within the household and fitness. Multilevel regressions were used to determine the likelihood of being at MR in schoolchildren. The proportion of males and females who engage in PA with adults daily was 17.4% and 10.4%, respectively. 16.5% male and 17.2% female did not engage in any PA with adults at all. Compared with those engaging in PA daily with adults in their household, schoolchildren who have reported no such PA were 54% (OR 1.54, 95% CI, 1.07–2.20) likely to have an elevated MR profile. Those who sometimes do PA with adult were 25% (OR 1.25, 95% CI, 0.82–1.93) more likely to have a higher MR profile. After adjusting for PA and fitness, PA with adults remains a determinant of MR profile in males. Compared with those that reported they daily did, schoolchildren were more likely to be unfit if they either sometimes engaged in PA with adults (OR 2.11, 95% CI, 1.44–3.09) or never (OR 2.89, 95% CI, 1.89–4.43). Joint PA with an adult within household could increase schoolchildren's fitness level and may reduce the risk of metabolic diseases.     

Physical activity, body composition and physical self-esteem: a 3-year follow-up study among adolescents in Sweden

AIMS: To measure physical activity by means of daily pedometer steps, body composition, expressed as body mass index (BMI) and bioelectrical impedance as percent body fat, and perceived physical self-esteem and additionally, to evaluate eventual predictors for a healthy lifestyle i.e., highly physically active, normal weighted and a high physical self-esteem in a follow-up group. METHODS: During autumn 2000 physical activity level was assessed and BMI was calculated in 871 children aged 7-14 in south eastern Sweden and in 501 of these, physical self-esteem were also assessed. During autumn 2003 a total of 375 adolescents aged 15-18 were assessed using the same methodology and additionally percent body fat was measured. Ninety-three of these adolescents (46 girls), were also measured in 2000 and they formed the follow-up group. RESULTS: In the follow-up group a significant increase in BMI and stability in physical self-esteem in boys and girls, and in boys a significant decrease in daily steps was found 3 years later. Strongest predictor to be highly physically active, maintain normal BMI and high self-esteem 3 years later, i.e., to have a healthy lifestyle, was for girls increased self-esteem and for boys a decreased BMI. CONCLUSION: Consequently, for a healthy lifestyle, promoting physical self-esteem in girls and weight control in boys is of great importance in early adolescence.     

Fundamental movement skills and physical fitness as predictors of physical activity: A 6‐year follow‐up study

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which fundamental movement skills and physical fitness scores assessed in early adolescence predict self‐reported physical activity assessed 6 years later. The sample comprised 333 (200 girls, 133 boys; M age = 12.41) students. The effects of previous physical activity, sex, and body mass index (BMI) were controlled in the main analyses. Adolescents’ fundamental movement skills, physical fitness, self‐report physical activity, and BMI were collected at baseline, and their self‐report energy expenditure (metabolic equivalents: METs) and intensity of physical activity were collected using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire 6 years later. Results showed that fundamental movement skills predicted METs, light, moderate, and vigorous intensity physical activity levels, whereas fitness predicted METs, moderate, and vigorous physical activity levels. Hierarchical regression analyses also showed that after controlling for previous levels of physical activity, sex, and BMI, the size of the effect of fundamental movement skills and physical fitness on energy expenditure and physical activity intensity was moderate (R² change between 0.06 and 0.15), with the effect being stronger for high intensity physical activity.     

Associations of sitting and physical activity with grip strength and balance in mid-life: 1970 British Cohort Study

Strength and balance training are now recommended in many physical activity (PA) guidelines. However, it is unclear whether these recommendations are applicable to middle-aged adults. We aimed to examine the associations of sitting and physical activity times with grip strength and standing balance performance in mid-life. Up to 4726 participants from the 1970 British Cohort study, with data on sitting and activity (measured using a thigh-worn accelerometer (activPAL3-micro)), grip strength and balance times at age 46 years were included in analyses. Associations of sitting, moderate-vigorous, and total PA times with grip strength and balance performance were tested using linear and multinomial logistic regression models, respectively. Greater time spent sitting was associated with weaker grip strength even after adjustment for potential confounders and MVPA time (fully adjusted regression coefficient: −0.51 kg (95% CI: −0.63, −0.39) per 1-hour sitting/day). Associations of PA time with grip strength were not independent of sitting time. There was only a weak association between sitting time and balance performance but greater MVPA and total PA times were associated with higher relative risks of successfully balancing for 30 seconds with eyes closed (vs poor balance). However, these associations were fully attenuated after adjustments for covariates. In summary, among a sample of middle-aged adults a robust association between sitting time and grip strength was observed. These findings suggest potential benefits of actively promoting less sitting alongside activities that specifically benefit muscle strength and balance performance in mid-life to ensure that people maintain all important aspects of their physical capability as they age.     

Development of muscular endurance and strength from adolescence to adulthood and level of physical capacity in men and women at the age of 34 years

This study investigated the development of muscular endurance and strength from the age of 16 to the age of 34 and the fitness components at the age of 34 in men and women. A randomly selected group consisting of 220 boys and 205 girls was tested in 1974 and reinvestigated 18 years later. Muscular endurance and strength increased significantly in 4 of the 5 remeasured tests for the men; bench press increased by 58%, two-hand lift by 20%, hand grip by 16% and Sargent jump by 8%. For the women there was a significant increase in bench press and two-hand lift by 25% and 7% respecively, but hand grip and Sargent jump decreased with a few per cent. The hip and trunk flexion test, sit-up, decreased remarkably in both men (58%) and women (78%). At the age of 16 physical capacity was significantly higher in all tests in the men. This was also the situation at the age of 34 except for VO₂ max in ml. kg⁻¹. min⁻¹ and muscular endurance in the back muscles. There were no differences in flexibility between men and women except for less flexibility in the hamstring muscles in the men. The result of the balance test was significantly better in the men.     

Changes in physical activity level and risk of ischaemic heart disease

The aim of this study was to analyse prospectively the impact of changes in physical activity level on the risk of ischaemic heart disease (IHD). In 1970–1971, 5249 men aged 40–59 years (mean=48) reported their level of physical activity in leisure time. In 1985–1986, a new baseline was established comprising 75% of survivors who reported their level of physical activity at the time. Some 2894 men aged 53–75, mean=63, free from arteriosclerotic stigmas were included, and their morbidity and mortality were recorded over the next 6 years. Some 181 men had an IHD event; 44 were fatal. A total of 270 men died from all-cause mortality (ACM). Men physically active less than 4 h per week in 1970–1971 had an increased risk of IHD, RR (95% confidence interval)=1.7 (1.1-2.6) compared with men physically more active. For men who reported a sedentary lifestyle, the 1985–1986 RR of IHD was 1.1 (0.9-1.5) compared with more active men. Potential confounders did not explain the results. Among the younger half, those who changed from sedentary to active had a decreased risk of IHD compared with those who remained sedentary (RR=0.6 (0.1-2.5)). In older men, those who changed from sedentary to active had an increased risk of IHD compared with those who remained sedentary (RR=1.9 (0.9-4.2)). In the 6-year follow-up period, the lowest risk of IHD and ACM was found in men who were physically active when reaching midlife and continued to be active. In the younger age group, 40–49 years, taking up a more active lifestyle during the next 15 years was associated with a reduction in the incidence of IHD. In the older age group, 50–59 years, changing from a sedentary to a physically more active lifestyle during the next 15 years was associated with a doubled risk of IHD during the 6-year follow-up period compared with men at the same age who continued to be sedentary. Consequently, we advocate a thorough medical check-up before advising more physical activity in elderly men.     

Assessment of physical activity, fitness and performance in 76-year-olds

In a population study comprising 588 76-year-olds, the level of physical activity and physical performance, as well as associations between the variables included, was investigated. Men were significantly more active than women unless household activities were included in the physical activity scale, in which case no difference was found between men and women in the summer, whereas women were significantly more active than men in winter. In all performance variables (isometric knee extensor strength, stair-climbing and maximal walking speed) men had significantly higher values than women. Correlations between physical activity and physical performance were moderate, but still indicate that the scale is a valid one for assessing physical activity.     

Customer-oriented counseling for physical activity in older people: study protocol and selected baseline results of a randomized-controlled trial (ISRCTN 07330512)

The objective of this study is to describe the rationale, design and selected baseline results of a 2‐year randomized‐controlled trial (RCT) on the effects of physical activity counseling in community‐living older people. After a four‐phase screening and data‐collection process targeting all independently living people in the city center of Jyväskylä, Finland, six hundred and thirty‐two 75–81‐year‐old cognitively intact, sedentary persons who were able to move independently outdoors at least minimally and willing to take part in the RCT were randomized into intervention and control groups. At baseline, over half of the subjects exercised less than two to three times a month and two‐thirds were willing to increase their physical activity level. The desire to increase physical activity was more common (86%) among subjects with mobility limitation compared with those without (60%, P=0.004). The intervention group received an individualized face‐to‐face counseling session, followed by phone contacts every 3 months throughout the intervention. The study outcomes include physical activity level, mobility limitation, functional impairments, disability, mood, quality of life, use of services, institutionalization and mortality. The screening and recruitment process was feasible and succeeded well, and showed that unmet physical activity needs are common in older people.