Early nonhemorrhagic cardiac tamponade complicating acute myocardial infarction: a case report and review of the literature

Pericarditis and small pericardial effusions frequently occur following acute myocardial infarction (AMI). A case is reported in which nonhemorrhagic cardiac tamponade complicated AMI within three days of the acute event. In such cases the placement of a pericardial drainage catheter may obviate the need for repeated pericardiocentesis.     

Percutaneous pericardial catheter drainage: report of 42 consecutive cases

Test results of 42 consecutive patients with pericardial effusion treated with percutaneous pericardial drainage were analyzed. Intermittent (79%) or continuous (21%) drainage through a 60-cm pigtail catheter (No. 6Fr to 8Fr) was used. Clinical indications were urgent or semiurgent treatment of large (38%), life-threatening (24%), recurrent (21%) or acute (traumatic) (17%) pericardial effusion. Sixteen patients had a malignant cause for the effusion. Mean duration of use of the indwelling pericardial catheter was 3.5 days (range less than 1 day to 19 days). Two of the 9 catheters in patients on continuous drainage but only 1 of 33 catheters in patients on intermittent drainage became occluded. There was only 1 possible infective complication. Six patients had subsequent elective surgical intervention for persistent or recurrent effusion. Placement of an indwelling pericardial catheter guided by 2-dimensional echocardiography is safe and effective for initial treatment of selected pericardial effusions.     

Profile of cardiac tamponade in the medical emergency ward of a North Indian hospital.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the profile of patients presenting to the medical emergency ward with cardiac tamponade. DESIGN: Retrospective observational study. SETTING: Tertiary care hospital in North India. PATIENTS: Thirty patients (19 men and 11 women) presenting to the medical emergency ward with cardiac tamponade from March 1, 1995 to March 31, 1997. MAIN RESULTS: The mean age was 36.5+/-7.6 years for the men and 34+/-12.4 years for the women. Breathlessness, fever, cough, chest pain and easy fatigability were present in 97%, 90%, 70%, 57% and 37% of patients, respectively. Etiologically, tuberculosis accounted for 60%, malignant disease for 33% and hypothyroidism for 7% of cases of cardiac tamponade. Echocardiographically guided pericardiocentesis was carried out in all patients without any complications. Six patients underwent catheter pericardial drainage and, of these, four required pericardiostomy. CONCLUSIONS: Tuberculosis ranked as the most common cause of cardiac tamponade in Northern India, followed by malignancy. Therapeutically, echocardiographically guided pericardiocentesis for cardiac tamponade is a safe and effective procedure. For those with recurrent pericardial effusions, catheter pericardial drainage is a safe option until the underlying cause can be treated or surgery planned.     

Evaluation of children with a large pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade

OBJECTIVES: Large pericardial effusions and cardiac tamponade are rare in childhood.The aim of this study was to evaluate the aetiological factors and clinical findings of large pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade in children. METHODS: We reviewed retrospectively the records of 10 (6 male, 4 female) patients (mean age: 8.05 +/- 4.4 y) with the diagnosis of large pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade requiring pericardiocentesis and pericardial drainage between 2002 and 2004. RESULTS: After extensive diagnostic investigation we detected that three patients had tuberculosis, one patient had uraemic pericarditis; one patient had bacterial pericarditis; one patient had post-pericardiotomy syndrome; two patients had malignancy and two patients had no identifiable aetiology. Echocardiography-guided percutaneous pericardial puncture and pigtail catheter placement is safe and effective for initial treatment of patients with large pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade and in most cases, initial assessment with clinical, serologic, and radiologic investigation and careful follow-up can reveal the aetiology. CONCLUSIONS: Although tuberculosis is rare in industrialized countries, in developing countries it remains one of the most important causes of large pericardial effusion and should be investigated and excluded in each patient.     

A new cross sectional echocardiographic method for estimating the volume of large pericardial effusions.

OBJECTIVE--To evaluate a new cross sectional echocardiographic method for estimating the volume of pericardial effusions. DESIGN--The volume of pericardial fluid removed by surgical drainage or paracentesis was compared with the volume estimated by the echocardiographic method. The pericardial sac volume and cardiac volume were calculated by applying the formula for the volume of a prolate ellipse (pi x 4/3 x L/2 x D1/2 x D2/2) where L is the major axis and D1 and D2 are the minor axes. The pericardial fluid volume was calculated as the pericardial sac volume minus the cardiac volume. PATIENTS--13 patients with 14 large pericardial effusions (one recurrence) all of whom had tamponade and cross sectional echocardiography just before therapeutic full drainage of the effusion. RESULTS--The volumes of pericardial fluid drained ranged from 0.5 to 2.11. The correlation between these actual volumes and the volumes estimated by echocardiography was excellent (r = 0.97); the correlation was good in four patients with intrapericardial adhesions. CONCLUSIONS--Because of certain approximations in measuring quantity of pericardial fluid drained, the echocardiographic estimations cannot be claimed to be definite. The data, however, indicate that the echocardiographic method is sufficiently reliable to provide useful estimates for practical clinical purposes.     

A new cross sectional echocardiographic method for estimating the volume of large pericardial effusions.

OBJECTIVE--To evaluate a new cross sectional echocardiographic method for estimating the volume of pericardial effusions. DESIGN--The volume of pericardial fluid removed by surgical drainage or paracentesis was compared with the volume estimated by the echocardiographic method. The pericardial sac volume and cardiac volume were calculated by applying the formula for the volume of a prolate ellipse (pi x 4/3 x L/2 x D1/2 x D2/2) where L is the major axis and D1 and D2 are the minor axes. The pericardial fluid volume was calculated as the pericardial sac volume minus the cardiac volume. PATIENTS--13 patients with 14 large pericardial effusions (one recurrence) all of whom had tamponade and cross sectional echocardiography just before therapeutic full drainage of the effusion. RESULTS--The volumes of pericardial fluid drained ranged from 0.5 to 2.11. The correlation between these actual volumes and the volumes estimated by echocardiography was excellent (r = 0.97); the correlation was good in four patients with intrapericardial adhesions. CONCLUSIONS--Because of certain approximations in measuring quantity of pericardial fluid drained, the echocardiographic estimations cannot be claimed to be definite. The data, however, indicate that the echocardiographic method is sufficiently reliable to provide useful estimates for practical clinical purposes.     

Clinical and echocardiographic characteristics of significant pericardial effusions following cardiothoracic surgery and outcomes of echo-guided pericardiocentesis for management: Mayo Clinic experience, 1979-1998.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: This study assessed the clinical features, timing of presentation, and echocardiographic characteristics associated with clinically significant pericardial effusions after cardiothoracic surgery. The outcomes of echocardiographically (echo-) guided pericardiocentesis for the management of these effusions were evaluated. DESIGN: From the prospective Mayo Clinic Registry of Echo-guided Pericardiocentesis (February 1979 to June 1998), 245 procedures performed for clinically significant postoperative effusions were identified. Clinical features, effusion causes, echocardiographic findings, and management outcomes were studied and analyzed. Cross-referencing the registry with the Mayo Clinic surgical database provided an estimate of the incidence of significant postoperative effusions and the number of cases in which primary surgical management was chosen instead of pericardiocentesis. RESULTS: Use of anticoagulant therapy was considered a significant contributing factor in 86% and 65% of early effusions (< or =7 days after surgery) and late effusions (>7 days after surgery), respectively. Postpericardiotomy syndrome was an important factor in the development of late effusions (34%). Common presenting symptoms included malaise (90%), dyspnea (65%), and chest pain (33%). Tachycardia, fever, elevated jugular venous pressure, hypotension, and pulsus paradoxus were found in 53%, 40%, 39%, 27%, and 17% of cases, respectively. Transthoracic echocardiography permitted rapid diagnosis and hemodynamic assessment of all effusions except for three cases that required transesophageal echocardiography for confirmation. Echo-guided pericardiocentesis was successful in 97% of all cases and in 96% of all loculated effusions. Major complications (2%), including chamber lacerations (n = 2) and pneumothoraces (n = 3), were successfully treated by surgical repair and chest tube reexpansion, respectively. Median follow-up duration for the study population was 3.8 years (range, 190 days to 16.4 years). The use of extended catheter drainage was associated with reduction in recurrence for early and late postoperative effusions by 46% and 50%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The symptoms and physical findings of clinically significant postoperative pericardial effusions are frequently nonspecific and may be inadequate for a decision regarding intervention. Echocardiography can quickly confirm the presence of an effusion, and pericardiocentesis under echocardiographic guidance is safe and effective. The use of a pericardial catheter for extended drainage is associated with lower recurrence rates, and the majority of patients so treated do not require further intervention.     

Medical management of malignant pericardial effusion by tetracycline sclerosis

Fifty-eight patients with malignant pericardial effusion were seen from 1979 to 1986. A Kifa catheter was inserted into the pericardial sac and allowed to drain for 12 to 24 hours during electrocardiographic monitoring. Lidocaine hydrochloride, 100 mg, was instilled intrapericardially, followed by tetracycline hydrochloride, 500 to 1,000 mg, in 20 ml of normal saline solution. The catheter was clamped for 1 to 2 hours and then reopened. This procedure was repeated daily until the net drainage was less than 25 ml/24 hours. There were 22 male and 36 female patients (median age 58 years). The primary malignancy included lung (27 patients), breast (16 patients), stomach (3 patients), adenocarcinoma of unknown primary (7 patients), mesothelioma (2 patients) and chronic granulocytic leukemia, ovary and lymphoma (1 patient each). Fifty-six patients received 1 to 5 tetracycline instillations. In 1 patient, the catheter could not be inserted and in another, clotting occurred within the catheter before injection of tetracycline. Complications included transient atrial arrhythmias (5 patients), pain after injection (9 patients) and temperature higher than 37.5 degrees C (5 patients). One patient had a cardiac arrest during pericardiocentesis. Forty-three patients (74%) had control of their effusions for longer than 30 days (median survival 168 days, range 30 to 1,149+), and 5 patients (9%) died before 30 days without effusion. Eight patients (14%) did not achieve control. One declined further therapy after 1 instillation, and 3 died within 6 days with progressive malignancy. One patient had persistent drainage after 3 instillations, and 3 had reaccumulation of fluid 2, 6 and 27 days after catheter removal.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Large pericardial effusions due to systemic lupus erythematosus: a report of eight cases

The aim of this study was to describe the clinical, echocardiographic and laboratory characteristics of large pericardial effusions and cardiac tamponade secondary to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). An ongoing prospective study was conducted at Tygerberg Academic Hospital, South Africa between 1996 and 2002. All patients older than 13 years presenting with large pericardial effusions (> 10 mm) requiring pericardiocentesis were included. Eight cases (out of 258) were diagnosed with SLE. The mean (SD) age was 29.5 (10.7) years. Common clinical features were Raynaud's phenomenon, arthralgia and lupus nephritis class III/IV. Echocardiography showed Libman-Sacks endocarditis (LSE) in all the mitral valves. Two patients developed transient left ventricular dysfunction; both these patients had pancarditis. Typical serological findings included antinuclear antibodies, anti-double stranded DNA antibodies, low complement C4 levels and low C3 levels. CRP was elevated in six cases. Treatment consisted of oral steroids and complete drainage of the pericardial effusions. No repeat pericardial effusions or constrictive pericarditis developed amongst the survivors (3.1 years follow up). This study concludes that large pericardial effusions due to SLE are rare, and associated with nephritis, LSE and myocardial dysfunction. Treatment with steroids and complete drainage is associated with a good cardiac outcome.     

Large pericardial effusions of inflammatory origin in childhood

OBJECTIVES: Our aim was to review the clinical records from children with large pericardial effusions of inflammatory origin presenting to a tertiary referral centre over the last 21 years, with emphasis on their clinical presentation, management and outcome. BACKGROUND: The common identifiable causes of pericardial effusion in children include prior cardiac surgery, bacterial pericarditis, malignancy, and connective tissue disorders. In a significant number of children, however, despite extensive investigation, it is not possible to identify a clear aetiology. A viral cause is often considered, though rarely confirmed. The clinical course of such large idiopathic pericardial effusions in children has not been extensively reported. METHODS AND RESULTS: We reviewed retrospectively the records of all patients seen between 1981 and 2001 with large pericardial effusions of inflammatory origin requiring drainage, excluding the effusions related to cardiac surgery or malignancy. We found 31 patients fulfilling our criterions for study. They could be divided into three groups, with 15 patients having no specific identifiable aetiology despite extensive investigation, 12 patients having evidence of bacterial pericarditis, and four with a probable immunologic disorder. Fever was present in only eight patients (53%) in the idiopathic group. All patients in the other groups had fever. Except for fever and the resultant tachycardia, it was not possible to distinguish on clinical grounds, nor on the presence or otherwise of cardiac tamponade, between those with idiopathic aetiology and those with bacterial infection. Of the patients with presumed bacterial pericarditis, five (42%) had both positive blood and pericardial fluid cultures, three (25%) had positive blood cultures, while a further three patients (25%) had only positive pericardial fluid cultures. All patients required drainage of the pericardial effusion, either under echocardiographic guidance or surgically. None of the patients died. The hospital stay was significantly shorter for those with idiopathic as opposed to bacterial pericarditis. Of those with an idiopathic aetiology, six required readmission due to recurrence of the pericardial effusion, with four patients requiring further surgical drainage. No patients required readmission with a bacterial or immunologic aetiology. No patient developed constrictive pericarditis after a median follow-up of 22 months. CONCLUSION: Patients with large idiopathic pericardial effusion had relatively few constitutional symptoms as compared with their gross echocardiographic findings. Those with bacterial pericarditis had more urgent need for treatment. Patients with pericardial effusion of inflammatory origin, when treated appropriately, had an excellent outcome with no mortality or development of constrictive pericarditis.     

Cardiac tamponade and superior vena cava syndrome in lung cancer--a case report

A combination of pericardial effusion with cardiac tamponade and superior vena caval syndrome is an unusual first presentation of carcinoma of lung, although cardiac involvement is often a late finding in widespread malignancy. Clinical identification can be difficult antemortem. Accurate diagnosis and prompt intervention are necessary to prevent adverse outcomes. Decisions regarding treatment must take into account the clinical presentation and echocardiographic findings. Echocardiography-guided pericardiocentesis with catheter drainage and/or pericardial window is the primary treatment strategy of choice for most large or hemodynamically significant effusions. New cardiac symptoms or classic findings of cardiac tamponade should prompt aggressive investigation. We present a case of adenocarcinoma of the lung that initially presented as pericardial effusion with tamponade and superior vena cava syndrome. The patient had all the clinical features of tamponade such as pulsus paradoxus, tachycardia, elevated jugular venous pressure, hypotension, and electrical alternans on surface electrocardiography. The findings were confirmed on echocardiography and computed tomography of chest, both of which allowed for rapid confirmation of the presence of an effusion and compression of the superior vena cava. The existing literature on the subject is succinctly reviewed.     

Pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade in pediatric stem cell transplant recipients

Pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade is a rarely reported complication following stem cell transplant (SCT). The incidence among pediatric SCT recipients is not well defined. To assess the frequency of clinically significant pericardial effusions, we retrospectively examined clinically significant cardiac effusions at our center. Between January of 1993 and August 2004, clinically significant pericardial effusions were identified in nine of 205 patients (4.4%). The median age at the time of transplant was 9 years (range 0.6-18 years) and seven received an allogeneic transplant. All nine had normal cardiac function prior to transplant. The effusion developed at a median of 30 days (range 18-210 days). All allogeneic recipients had acute or clinically extensive graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) at the time the effusion was diagnosed. Seven patients (78%) required pericardiocentesis or surgical creation of a pericardial window. No patient died as a complication of the effusion or the therapeutic procedures. Clinically significant pericardial effusions are more common than previously reported in pediatric SCT recipients. Acute and chronic GVHD is an associated factor.     

心包积液持续导管引流穿刺部位的新选择

目的　探讨经胸骨左缘第 3、4肋间穿刺放置心包积液引流导管的可行性和安全性。方法　应用二维超声心动图 ( 2DE) ,探测 38例中到大量心包积液患者剑突下、心尖部及胸骨左缘第 3、4肋间距胸骨左缘 2cm处 3个部位的舒张期最大积液厚度和预定进针深度 ;在 2DE引导下 ,以胸骨左缘第 3、4肋间为穿刺点 ,留置导管引流心包积液。结果　 2DE探测 3个部位的舒张期最大积液厚度差异无显著性 ,胸骨左缘第 3、4肋间处预定进针深度最小 ;38例患者均一次穿刺、留置导管成功 ,其中36例 ( 94 8% )经超声证实引流导管位于后心包。无穿刺相关并发症 ,无导管脱出心包腔及积液渗漏至胸腔或皮下 ,1例于放置引流导管后第 3天发生神经介导性晕厥。结论　经胸骨左缘第 3、4肋间途径行心包引流导管留置术安全有效、操作简便 ,优于剑突下和心尖部途径     

Causes of moderate to large pericardial effusion requiring pericardiocentesis in 140?Han Chinese patients

Background

Causes of pericardial effusion requiring pericardiocentesis are very complex; a summary of 140?patients, especially those having iatrogenic pericardial effusion, is rare.

Methods

We prospectively analyzed the clinical data and etiology of moderate to large pericardial effusion requiring pericardiocentesis and drainage in 140?consecutive Han Chinese patients from January?2007 to December?2009.

Results

Pericardiocentesis was successfully performed and effective in all patients. There were 9?cases with transudates, while the remaining 131?cases were diagnosed with exudates (neoplastic in 54?patients, tuberculous in 40?patients, 9?cases of connective tissue diseases, 12?cases undergoing cardiac catheterization, and 8?cases of acute myocardial infarction). Among the 54?malignancies, 30?patients had lung cancer, 7?had breast cancer, and 4?had liver cancer. No differences in the clinical characteristics and the results of routine and biochemistry studies in the pericardial fluid between tuberculous and malignant groups were found. Of the 12?patients undergoing cardiac catheterization, 6?cases had undergone catheter ablation for tachycardia and 4?cases had undergone percutaneous coronary intervention. The 6?patients undergoing catheter ablation were women and the ratio of pericardial effusion was higher in women (6/436) than in men (0/462; p<0.05). Pericardiocentesis and drainage was effective in the 6?patients who underwent catheter ablation, and the remaining 6?patients underwent surgical intervention after pericardiocentesis and drainage. All 8?patients with acute myocardial infarction died during hospitalization.

Conclusion

In China, most moderate to large pericardial effusions requiring pericardiocentesis and drainage were exudates and bloody, which were mainly caused by malignancy and tuberculosis. However, the incidence of iatrogenic pericardial effusion has been increasing and should not be ignored. Pericardiocentesis and drainage were effective.     

Chronic Pericardial Effusion: Causes and Management

Chronic pericardial effusion is a common pericardial syndrome whose approach has been well standardised in recent years. The main challenge associated with this condition is the progression (sometimes unheralded) to cardiac tamponade. Pericardial effusions may present either as an isolated finding or in the context of a specific etiology including autoimmune, neoplastic, or metabolic disease. Among investigations used during diagnostic work-up, echocardiography is of paramount importance for the diagnosis, sizing, and serial evaluation of the hemodynamic impact of effusions on heart diastolic function. In an individualised manner, advanced imaging including computed tomography and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging should be performed, especially if baseline tests are inconclusive. Triage of these patients according to the most recent 2015 European Society of Cardiology Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases should take into account the presence of hemodynamic compromise as well as suspicion of malignant or purulent pericarditis as first step, C-reactive protein serum level measurement as second step, investigations for a specific condition known to be associated with pericardial effusion as third step, and finally the size and the duration of the effusion. Treatment depends on the evaluation of the above-mentioned parameters and should ideally be tailored to the individual patient. Prognosis of chronic pericardial effusions depends largely on the underlying etiology. According to novel data, the prognosis of individuals with idiopathic, chronic (> 3 months), large (> 2 cm), asymptomatic pericardial effusions is usually benign and a watchful waiting strategy seems more reasonable and cost-effective than routine drainage as previously recommended.     

Percutaneous cannulation of large pericardial effusions

A rapid, easy, and safe method of introducing a large cannula into the pericardial space for drainage of large pericardial effusions using conventional catheter introducers and catheters is described. Confirmation of the presence of a sizeable pericardial effusion is essential before insertion of a percutaneous cannula.     

Percutaneous cannulation of large pericardial effusions.

A rapid, easy, and safe method of introducing a large cannula into the pericardial space for drainage of large pericardial effusions using conventional catheter introducers and catheters is described. Confirmation of the presence of a sizeable pericardial effusion is essential before insertion of a percutaneous cannula.     

Undrained bloody pericardial effusion in the early postoperative period after coronary bypass surgery: a prospective blood pool study

To assess the clinical importance of hemopericardium after cardiac surgery, serial blood pool scintigrams were performed in 13 random patients throughout the initial hours after coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Scintigraphic measurements of pericardial fluid accumulation and left ventricular ejection fraction were made. Hemodynamics, cardiac, output, and chest tube drainage were monitored; and symptoms of postpericardiotomy syndrome were recorded for a mean of 7.4 months after surgery. Seven of the 13 patients had no scintigraphic evidence of bloody pericardial effusion. Six patients had scintigraphic evidence of bloody pericardial effusion; three of these effusions were small, localized posteriorly, and evident throughout the study. In two other patients large collections of fluid (over 100 ml) developed. In one of these patients increased mediastinal drainage required reoperation. The other patient remained stable although mediastinal drainage decreased. The sixth patient showed a moderate effusion (95 ml) that decreased without evident effusion or drainage when the last image was taken. Two patients (one with evidence of a postoperative bloody effusion), had symptoms of postpericardiotomy syndrome in the follow-up period. This study reports the generally benign occurrence of bloody postoperative mediastinal effusions, the frequent accumulation of substantial amounts of undrained sanguineous fluid, and the lack of connection between the presence and or amount of pericardial blood and the postpericardiotomy syndrome. The importance of these scintigraphic findings can be interpreted only with knowledge of associated mediastinal drainage.     

Catheter lavage and drainage of pneumococcal pericarditis

An 88 year old woman with streptococcal pneumonia developed purulent pericarditis and cardiac tamponade despite treatment with antibiotics. Percutaneous pericardial drainage was effected with a 6 French pigtail catheter inserted via the subxyphoid approach. Catheter drainage was continued for 7 days in conjunction with systemic antibiotics. Catheter patency was maintained with antibiotic lavage. Immediate hemodynamic improvement followed the initial pericardial drainage. Fever, leukocytosis, and sepsis resolved during the course of therapy. The patient recovered fully from the closed space bacterial infection without additional surgical drainage. There has been no recurrence of streptococcal infection and no echocardiographic evidence of recurrent pericardial effusion after 3 months of follow-up. Indwelling catheter drainage combined with antibiotics may be an effective substitute for surgical drainage in the treatment of streptococcal pericarditis. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.