Early postpartum metabolic assessment in women with prior gestational diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To present the results of early postpartum metabolic assessment in women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), to determine predictive factors for subsequent diabetes, and to investigate the association of postpartum glucose tolerance with other components of the metabolic syndrome. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 788 women were evaluated 3-6 months after a GDM pregnancy. A 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was performed. Cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, blood pressure, BMI, and body fat distribution were assessed. Clinical and obstetric history, baseline variables at the diagnosis of GDM, metabolic control during pregnancy, and index pregnancy outcome were compared in women with diabetes and women without diabetes (American Diabetes Association [ADA] criteria) after pregnancy. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to ascertain independent predictors of subsequent diabetes. Correlation coefficients were assessed between postpartum glucose tolerance and lipid levels, blood pressure, BMI, and body fat distribution. RESULTS: According to ADA criteria, 588 (74.6%) women were normal, 46 (5.8%) had impaired fasting glucose, 82 (10.4%) had impaired glucose tolerance, 29 (3.7%) had both impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance, and 43 (5.4%) had diabetes. Prepregnancy obesity, recurrence of GDM, gestational age at diagnosis of GDM, glucose values in the 100-g OGTT, number of abnormal values in the 100-g OGTT, fasting C-peptide levels in pregnancy, C-peptide/glucose score in pregnancy, insulin requirement in pregnancy, 3rd trimester HbA1c levels, and macrosomia differed significantly in women with subsequent diabetes. Independent predictors of postpartum diabetes were prepregnancy obesity, C-peptide/glucose score during pregnancy, and the number of abnormal values in the 100-g diagnostic OGTT. The area under the postpartum glucose curve was positively associated with BMI, waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio, triglycerides, and systolic and diastolic blood pressures. CONCLUSIONS: Low C-peptide/glucose score during pregnancy together with prepregnancy obesity and severity of GDM (number of abnormal values in the 100-g diagnostic OGTT) are independent predictors of subsequent diabetes. Our data suggest that regardless of obesity and severity of GDM, a beta-cell defect increases the risk of postpartum diabetes. The association of postpartum glucose tolerance with triglyceride levels, blood pressure, obesity, and regional distribution of body fat suggests that postpartum glucose intolerance anticipates a high-risk cardiovascular profile that comprises other risk factors besides diabetes.     

Gestational diabetes mellitus in women of single gravidity in Tianjin City, China

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and risk factors for the development of GDM in pregnant women in Tianjin, China, where the prevalence of GDM is still unknown. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 9,471 pregnant women living in the six urban districts of Tianjin, China, took part in the initial screening between December 1998 and December 1999. The screening test consisted of a 50-g 1-h glucose test. Women with a reading > or =7.8 mmol/l at the initial screening were invited to undergo a 75-g 2-h oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). GDM was confirmed using the World Health Organization's diagnostic criteria. RESULTS: At the initial screening test, 888 women had a glucose reading of > or =7.8 mmol/l. A total of 701 (79%) women took a subsequent OGTT. Of these, 174 women were confirmed to have GDM (154 with impaired glucose tolerance [IGT] and 20 with diabetes). The prevalence of GDM was 2.31% (2.03% for IGT and 0.28% for diabetes), adjusting for serum glucose levels at the initial screening test. Independent predictors for GDM were maternal age, stature, prepregnancy BMI, weight gain in pregnancy before screening, diabetes in first-degree relatives, and habitual cigarette smoking during pregnancy. Women who smoked or had a short stature are more likely to develop GDM than their counterparts. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of GDM in pregnant women in the city of Tianjin, China, was 2.31%. Short stature and smoking in pregnancy were additional risk factors for GDM.     

Clinical Outcomes of Pregnancies Complicated by Mild Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Differ by Combinations of Abnormal Oral Glucose Tolerance Test Values

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between levels of hyperglycemia, determined by each prenatal oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) value (fasting, 1 and 2 h), and maternal and perinatal outcomes and to determine whether the risk for these outcomes differs for women whose value(s) equaled or exceeded the thresholds for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) established by the International Association of Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

This article discusses a retrospective study of 8,711 women, delivering at ≥20 weeks'' gestation, who had a prenatal 2-h 75-g OGTT without a prior 50-g challenge and were not treated with insulin, glyburide, diet, and/or exercise during pregnancy. Associations between adverse outcomes and elevated OGTT values are reported.

RESULTS

After excluding treated women, 19.4% of the remaining women had IADPSG-defined GDM. Continuous fasting, 1- and 2-h OGTT measures, and GDM (yes/no) were significantly associated with most adverse outcomes. However, the magnitude and significance of risk for these outcomes differed by various combinations of abnormal glucose values. Women with normal fasting and elevated postload values were at higher risk for preterm delivery, gestational hypertension, and having an infant with hyperbilirubinema, whereas women with elevated fasting and normal postload values were at higher risk of having a large-for-gestational-age infant, compared with women without GDM.

CONCLUSIONS

Risks for different adverse outcomes vary depending on which single or combined IADPSG-defined OGTT thresholds are equaled or exceeded. Prospective studies are needed to determine whether changing pre- and postprandial glucose targets during pregnancy will more uniformly reduce adverse outcomes.Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is defined as “any degree of glucose intolerance with onset or first recognition during pregnancy” (1). The diagnosis of GDM is typically based on the results of a 2-h 75-g or 3-h 100-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), which measures maternal fasting plasma glucose (FPG) and postload glucose concentrations, administered between 24 and 28 weeks of gestation. American Diabetes Association (ADA) guidelines confer a GDM diagnosis if at least two 75-g or 100-g OGTT values meet the following thresholds: ≥95 mg/dl FPG, 1-h glucose ≥180 mg/dl, 2-h glucose ≥155 mg/dl, and 3-h glucose ≥140 mg/dl (2). These thresholds were initially established to identify women at high risk for type 2 diabetes following pregnancy (3).GDM is associated with increased risk for adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes, such as macrosomia, shoulder dystocia and birth injury, primary cesarean delivery, preeclampsia, preterm delivery, and fetal and neonatal mortality (4–7). However, risk for these outcomes among women with modest hyperglycemia during pregnancy has only recently been studied. The Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) study investigated quantitative associations between maternal glycemia and adverse outcomes and, after excluding women with FPG ≥105 and/or 2-h ≥200 mg/dl, reported significant associations between increasing glucose and adverse events, including birth weight >90th percentile, preterm delivery, shoulder dystocia/birth injury, primary cesarean delivery, preeclampsia, and hyperbilirubinemia (8,9). These findings formed the basis for the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) recommendations that GDM be identified by at least one abnormal 75-g 2-h OGTT value: FPG ≥92 mg/dl, 1-h glucose ≥180 mg/dl, or 2-h glu≥153 mg/dl (10).In the present study, we examined the association between each of the 75-g OGTT glucose values (fasting, 1-h and 2-h glucose) and several adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes in untreated women, taking into account differences in maternal demographics, prepregnancy BMI, and gestational weight gain. Additionally, we explored associations between adverse outcomes and categories of hyperglycemia that result in GDM diagnosis under IADPSG criteria to determine whether the level of risk is similar for each abnormal OGTT result and combinations thereof.     

Fasting and post-glucose load--reference limits for peripheral venous plasma glucose concentration in pregnant women.

Recently both the American Diabetes Organization (ADA) and World Health Organization (WHO) have revised the diagnostic recommendations for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), however, they did not not reach agreement on the criteria for diagnosis, the referral criteria for the confirmatory oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), its standardization, and diagnostic cut-off point. The aims of this study were to investigate if the fasting venous plasma glucose mmol/l (f-vPG) and the 2-hour venous plasma glucose mmol/l (2h-vPG) after a WHO standardized 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) in a non-risk group of pregnant women during first and third trimester of pregnancy deviated from that of risk groups, to establish a reference interval for f-vPG and 2h-vPG, and to investigate the predictive role of f-vPG for the 2h-vPG glucose concentration. This is a population-based case-control study where a consecutive number of pregnant women were invited to screening irrespective of their risk factors for GDM. All women filled in a questionnaire of the Danish national screening program on risk factors and had f-vPG and the 2h-vPG measured. By ruling out women with GDM and risk factors, we isolated a non-risk reference class. The In f-vPG parametric 97.5 centile was less than 5% higher during week 32 of pregnancy than during week 20, and therefore these groups were combined. The f-vPG 95% reference interval was from 4.01 mmol/l (95% CI: 3.96 to 4.07 mmol/l) to 5.26 mmol/l (95% CI: 5.19 to 5.34 mmol/l). "The true upper normal limit", the 99.9 centile, was 5.69 mmol/l (95% CI: 5.59 to 5.80 mmol/l). The f-vPG was 0.6 mmol/l lower over the whole range in pregnant women compared to age-matched non-pregnant women. The distribution of 2h-vPG concentrations at week 20 was non-Gaussian and therefore considered non-homogeneous, while it was Gaussian distributed and homogeneous at week 32. The 2h-vPG 95% reference interval of the combined weeks was from 2.80 mmol/l (95% CI: 2.56 to 3.04 mmol/l) to 7.58 mmol/l (95% CI: 7.34 to 7.82 mmol/l), and the upper limit of normal (99.9 centile) was 8.96 mmol/l (95% CI: 8.63 to 9.29 mmol/l). Distributions of f-vPG and 2h-vPG were distinct in our defined risk classes. In individual cases, no systematic correlation was found between the f-vPG concentration at week 20 and week 32. The f-vPG concentrations at any of the weeks did not predict the 2h-vPG level and no single clinical risk factor was decisive for the presence of GDM.     

Determinants of mild gestational hyperglycemia and gestational diabetes mellitus in a large dutch multiethnic cohort.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to identify independent determinants of mild gestational hyperglycemia (MGH) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and to assess the correlation between fasting glucose and C-peptide levels among control, MGH, and GDM women. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 1,022 consecutive women were evaluated with a 1-h 50-g glucose challenge test (GCT) at between 16 and 33 weeks of gestation. Women with a capillary whole-blood glucose > or =7.8 mmol/l in the GCT underwent a 3-h 100-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). On the basis of a positive GCT, the women with a positive OGTT were classified as GDM, whereas the women with a negative OGTT were classified as MGH. The following data were collected for all women: age, prepregnancy BMI, ethnicity, clinical and obstetric history, pregnancy outcome, and C-peptide level. RESULTS: A total of 813 women (79.6%) were normal, 138 (13.5%) had MGH, and 71 (6.9%) had GDM. There was a stepwise significant increase in mean fasting glucose (3.6 +/- 0.4, 3.9 +/- 0.4, and 4.7 +/- 0.7 mmol/l, respectively) and C-peptide level (0.60 [0.1-2.4], 0.86 [0.3-2.0], and 1.00 [0.5-1.6] nmol/l, respectively) among the three diagnostic groups. Maternal age, non-Caucasian ethnicity, and prepregnancy BMI were associated with GDM, whereas only maternal age and prepregnancy BMI were associated with MGH. A positive correlation between levels of fasting glucose and C-peptide was found in control women (r = 0.39 [95% CI 0.31-0.46]). A similar result was seen in MGH women (r = 0.38 [95% CI 0.23-0.52]), whereas the correlation between fasting glucose and C-peptide was nearly lost in GDM women (r = 0.14 [CI -0.09 to 0.36]). The fasting C-peptide-to-glucose ratio was reduced by 60% in GDM patients versus control subjects and MGH patients (0.41 +/- 0.25 vs. 0.70 +/- 0.20 and 0.73 +/- 0.23, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Of the well-known independent determinants of GDM, only maternal age and prepregnancy BMI were associated with MGH. It appears that additional factors promoting loss of beta-cell function distinguish MGH from GDM. One of these factors appears to be ethnicity.     

孕妇妊娠中期糖脂代谢紊乱对不良妊娠结局的影响

目的探讨孕妇妊娠中期的糖脂代谢异常对不良妊娠结局的影响。方法回顾性分析2013年4月～2014年4月在西安市第四医院产科就诊并分娩的孕妇1　685例,于24～28周检测糖脂等代谢指标并进行常规75　g口服葡萄糖耐量试验的结果。根据国际妊娠并发糖尿病研究组织(IADPSG)推荐的诊断标准分为妊娠糖尿病组(GDM)和糖耐量正常组;根据三酰甘油(TG)水平分为TG增高组(TG≥3.23　mmol/L)和TG正常组(TG＜3.23　mmol/L),随访并比较妊娠并发症和妊娠结局。统计学分析采用t检验,χ2检验和Logistic回归分析。结果1　685例孕妇中GDM组孕妇占11.69%,TG增高组孕妇占14.01%。①GDM组与糖耐量正常组相比,三酰甘油［(3.61±1.85)　vs　(2.98±1.34)mmol/L,t=5.73］,总胆固醇［(5.07±1.22) vs (4.60±0.99) mmol/L,t=6.03］显著升高,高密度脂蛋白［(1.28±0.61) vs (1.72±0.93) mmol/L,t=-6.47］明显降低,差异均有统计学意义(P值均＜0.01);GDM组的妊娠高血压(10.66% vs 4.54%)、子痫/子痫前期(7.11% vs 3.29%)、巨大儿(12.18% vs 5.85%)、新生儿窒息(4.57% vs 1.41%)的发生率均显著高于糖耐量正常组,差异均有统计学意义(P值均＜0.05)。②TG增高组与TG正常组相比,BMI(27.3±3.1 kg/m2 vs 20.4±2.3 kg/m2,t=40.59),空腹血糖［(4.65±0.71) vs (4.27±0.62)mmol/L,t=8.64］,空腹胰岛素［(20.16±10.53) vs (14.35±8.46) mU/L,t=9.86］,稳态模型评估-胰岛素抵抗指数(3.95±1.14 vs 2.72±0.89,t=18.92)明显升高,差异均有统计学意义(P值均＜0.01)。TG增高组的妊娠高血压(10.59% vs 4.42%)、子痫/子痫前期(6.36% vs 3.31%)、巨大儿(11.44% vs 5.80%)、新生儿窒息(4.66% vs 1.31%)的发生率均显著高于TG正常组,差异均有统计学意义(P值均＜0.05)。③Logistic回归分析显示:TG和FPG的异常增高发生妊娠高血压(OR=1.805和1.179,95%CI:1.314～2.249和0.926-1.451),巨大儿(OR=3.011和2.194,95%CI:2.317～3.526和1.562～2.927),新生儿窒息(OR=2.529和2.103,95%CI:1.208～5.246和1.591～2.493),妊娠糖尿病(OR=3.446和2.214,95%CI:1.472～8.254和1.578～3.006)的风险均升高(P值均＜0.05)。结论妊娠中期FPG,TG水平的代谢紊乱,可能造成妊娠不良结局风险增加。     

Implications of new diagnostic criteria for abnormal glucose homeostasis in women with previous gestational diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the consequences of applying revised American Diabetes Association (ADA) (1997) and World Health Organization (WHO) (1998) recommendations for the classification of glucose intolerance in women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: There were 192 women with previous GDM who took an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) 1-86 months after delivery and were classified by WHO (1985), ADA (1997, fasting glucose), and revised WHO (1998) guidelines. RESULTS: Among the 165 women without a preexisting diagnosis of diabetes, WHO-1985 and ADA-1997 provided similar estimates of diabetes prevalence (13.3% vs. 11.5%) but widely differing estimates of impaired glucose homeostasis (31.5% impaired glucose tolerance [IGT] by WHO-1985 vs. 10.9% impaired fasting glucose by ADA-1997 criteria). Overall, 56 women (34%) showed a classification discrepancy between WHO-1985 and ADA-1997 criteria, including 44 with normal fasting glucose by ADA-1997 criteria, but abnormal 2-h glucose by WHO-1985 criteria (40 IGT, 4 diabetes). The cardiovascular risk profile of these women was more favorable than that of 18 women with impaired fasting glucose. WHO-1998 recommendations reproduced ADA-1997 findings when used as a fasting screen, but behaved similarly to WHO-1985 criteria when 2-h glucose values were also analyzed. CONCLUSIONS: All criteria produced similar estimates of diabetes prevalence. However, analyses based on a single fasting glucose screen (and a threshold of 6.1 mmol/l) failed to identify 60% of women with abnormal 2-h glucose levels. Screening women with previous GDM (and by analogy, other groups at high risk of diabetes) with a single fasting glucose has low sensitivity for the detection of abnormal glucose tolerance. Recent guidelines recommending this approach require reevaluation.     

The association between impaired glucose tolerance and birth weight among black and white women in central North Carolina

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the relationship of glucose intolerance during pregnancy to birth weight among black and white participants of the Pregnancy, Infection, and Nutrition Study. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: This prospective cohort study recruited women from prenatal clinics in central North Carolina at 24-29 weeks' gestation. A 1-h 50-g glucose challenge test (GCT) and 100-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) were conducted. Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) was defined as one high value on the OGTT, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) as two or more high values, and normal glucose tolerance (NGT) was defined as a low or high value on the GCT screen but no high values on the OGTT. Women with known glucose status and birth outcome information were included in this analysis (n = 2055). RESULTS: Black women with IGT had higher rates of both macrosomia (38.5%) and large for gestational age (LGA) (53.9%) compared with white women (10.0% and 13.2%). Black infants' birth weights (3800 g) and prevalence of macrosomia and LGA were significantly higher among mothers with IGT compared with NGT women (birth weight, 3184 g; macrosomia, 7.0%; LGA, 11.6%). In contrast, among white infants, there was no significant increase in birth weight, macrosomia, or LGA associated with the mother's glucose tolerance status. In addition, there was no effect of GDM on birth weight in either group. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that, independent of maternal prepregnant weight, there may be significant increased risk of macrosomia among black IGT women but not among white IGT women. Further investigations into factors that may contribute to the observed results are needed.     

The 75-gram glucose load in pregnancy: relation between glucose levels and anthropometric characteristics of infants born to women with normal glucose metabolism

OBJECTIVE: To investigate, in pregnant women without gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), the relation among obstetric/demographic characteristics; fasting, 1-h, and 2-h plasma glucose values resulting from a 75-g glucose load; and the risk of abnormal neonatal anthropometric features and then to verify the presence of a threshold glucose value for a 75-g glucose load above which there is an increased risk for abnormal neonatal anthropometric characteristics. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: The study group consisted of 829 Caucasian pregnant women with singleton pregnancy who had no history of pregestational diabetes or GDM, who were tested for GDM with a 75-g, 2-h glucose load, used as a glucose challenge test, in two periods of pregnancy (early, 16-20 weeks; late, 26-30 weeks), and who did not meet the criteria for a GDM diagnosis. In the newborns, the following abnormal anthropometric characteristics were considered as outcome measures: cranial/thoracic circumference (CC/TC) ratio /=90th percentile for GA, and macrosomia (birth weight >/=90th percentile for GA), on the basis of growth standard development for our population. For the first part of the objective, logistic regression models were used to identify 75-g glucose load values as well as obstetric and demographic variables as markers for abnormal neonatal anthropometric characteristics. For the second part, the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was performed for the 75-g glucose load values to determine the plasma glucose threshold value that yielded the highest combined sensitivity and specificity for the prediction of abnormal neonatal anthropometric characteristics. RESULTS: In both early and late periods, maternal age >35 years was a predictor of neonatal CC/TC ratio 35 years being an independent predictor for macrosomia. The 2-h, 75-g glucose load values were significantly associated in both periods with neonatal CC/TC ratio /=90th percentile, whereas maternal age >35 years was an independent predictor of both neonatal CC/TC ratio 相似文献   

IADPSG诊断标准用于妊娠期糖尿病诊断的探讨

目的探讨妊娠期糖尿病应用国际糖尿病与妊娠研究组(IADPSG)诊断标准的合理性。方法对50g糖筛查阳性孕妇进行葡萄糖耐量实验,分别根据第7版妇产科教科书及IADPSG诊断标准诊断妊娠期糖尿病并分组,取同期非妊娠期糖尿病孕妇作为对照组,比较各组间妊娠结局。结果教科书诊断标准诊断阳性率9.7%,IADPSG诊断标准诊断阳性率12.3%。,按IADPSG诊断标准属于漏诊组的剖宫产率、子痫前期、羊水过多发生率均高于对照组,新生儿窒息、新生儿低血糖、巨大儿、大于胎龄儿发生率均高于对照组,按IADPSG诊断标准属于过度诊断组,剖宫产率、子痫前期、羊水过多、胎膜早破、早产发生率与对照组比较均无明显差异,巨大儿、大于胎龄儿发生率、新生儿高胆红素血症、新生儿转儿科率与对照组比较亦无明显差异。结论与教科书诊断标准相比,IADPSG诊断标准意味着孕期需要干预的妊娠期糖尿病孕妇增加,其围产期并发症明显增加,在我国采用IADPSG诊断标准是合理的。     

Relationships of fasting and postload glucose levels to sex and alcohol consumption. Are American Diabetes Association criteria biased against detection of diabetes in women?

OBJECTIVE: To compare, in men and women, the prevalence of undiagnosed type 2 diabetes assessed using criteria from the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the World Health Organization (WHO) and to investigate risk factors associated with fasting and 2-h postload plasma glucose. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Data from two companion surveys of Europeans, South Asians, and Afro-Caribbeans in west London were used. A total of 4,367 men and women aged 40-64 years who were not known to have diabetes underwent an oral glucose tolerance test after an overnight fast. The prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes was estimated using the ADA (fasting plasma glucose > or = 7.0 mmol/l) and WHO (2-h postload glucose > or = 11.1 mmol/l) criteria for epidemiologic studies. The association of body fat and usual alcohol intake with plasma glucose and diabetes prevalence was assessed. RESULTS: Compared with the WHO criterion, the ADA criterion gave a higher prevalence of diabetes in men (6.4 vs. 4.7%) but a lower prevalence in women (3.3 vs. 4.2%). In Afro-Caribbeans, the sex difference in diabetes prevalence was reversed. Women had significantly lower fasting glucose than men despite higher 2-h glucose levels. Alcohol intake was positively associated with fasting glucose in men and women but not with 2-h glucose levels. CONCLUSIONS: The new ADA criterion, based on fasting glucose alone, does not take account of sex differences in metabolic response to fasting or possible artifactual effects on fasting glucose. With the ADA criterion, alcohol intake was a significant risk factor for diabetes in our study population; this was not the case with the WHO criterion.     

Fasting Plasma Glucose at 24–28 Weeks to Screen for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: New evidence from China

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the usefulness of a fasting plasma glucose (FPG) at 24–28 weeks’ gestation to screen for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

The medical records and results of a 75-g 2-h oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) of 24,854 pregnant women without known pre-GDM attending prenatal clinics in 15 hospitals in China were examined.

RESULTS

FPG cutoff value of 5.1 mmol/L identified 3,149 (12.1%) pregnant women with GDM. FPG cutoff value of 4.4 mmol/L ruled out GDM in 15,369 (38.2%) women. With use of this cutoff point, 12.2% of patients with mild GDM will be missed. The positive predictive value is 0.322, and the negative predictive value is 0.928.

CONCLUSIONS

FPG at 24–28 weeks’ gestation could be used as a screening test to identify GDM patients in low-resource regions. Women with an FPG between ≥4.4 and ≤5.0 mmol/L would require a 75-g OGTT to diagnose GDM. This would help to avoid approximately one-half (50.3%) of the formal 75-g OGTTs in China.In 2011, the Ministry of Health (MOH) in China published the diagnostic criteria for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) based on a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) carried out between 24 and 28 weeks’ gestation (1). As a formal glucose tolerance test may be difficult to implement in low-resource rural areas in China, the MOH sought to assess whether a fasting plasma glucose (FPG) could be used as a screening tool to reduce the number of OGTTs required. The following cut points were suggested: if FPG ≥5.1 mmol/L, GDM can be diagnosed immediately; if FPG <4.4 mmol/L, GDM can be considered unlikely. Thus, the 75-g OGTT only needs to be performed for women with FPG values ≥4.4 mmol/L and <5.1 mmol/L. As there was no scientific evidence from China to support this approach, we conducted this study to test the hypothesis.     

妊娠早期空腹血糖测定结果回顾性分析

目的 探讨妊娠早期空腹血糖（FPG）测定水平与妊娠中期75g葡萄糖口服糖耐量试验（OGTT）结果 的关系。方法 选取2012年8月至2013年4月在孕12周时来该院建立孕册行空腹血糖检测,并于24～28周行75g葡萄糖OGTT试验的孕妇1107例,对其临床资料进行回顾性分析。以国际妊娠合并糖尿病研究组（IADPSG）2010年提出的新诊断标准按OGTT结果 将孕妇分为4组。A组为OGTT结果 正常组,B组为OGTT结果 有1项异常,C组为OGTT结果 有2项异常,D组为OGTT结果 有3项异常。比较4组孕妇空腹血糖结果 的差异。结果 A、B、C、D组的孕早期空腹血糖均值呈递增变化,A组孕早期FPG≥5．1mmol／L的孕妇有65例占5．9％（65／1107）,OGTT异常组有7例孕妇早期FPG≤4mmol／L。结论 孕早期空腹血糖升高是预警信号,提示孕中期发生妊娠糖尿病（GDM）的可能性增大。但将孕早期FPG≥5．1mmol／L作为GDM的诊断标准尚存疑问。处于任何一个空腹血糖区间,均有可能发生糖耐量异常,设立1个空腹血糖值而排除GDM的方法 不准确。     

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Simplifying the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy diagnostic algorithm using fasting plasma glucose

OBJECTIVE

To determine the impact of the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Group (IADPSG) criteria on 1) gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) diagnosis compared with the American Diabetes Association (ADA) criteria and 2) the fasting plasma glucose (FPG) to predict GDM.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

In 10,283 pregnant women undergoing a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) for universal screening of GDM, two FPG thresholds (of the OGTT) were used to rule in and to rule out GDM.

RESULTS

The IADPSG and ADA criteria identified GDM in 3,875 (37.7%) women and 1,328 (12.9%) women, respectively (P < 0.0005). FPG thresholds of ≥5.1 mmol/l ruled in GDM in 2,975 (28.9%) women with 100% specificity, while <4.4 mmol/l ruled out GDM in 2,228 (21.7%) women with 95.4% sensitivity. FPG independently could have avoided the OGTT in 5,203 (50.6%) women.

CONCLUSIONS

The IADPSG criteria increased GDM prevalence nearly threefold. By circumventing a significant number of OGTTs, an initial FPG can greatly simplify the IADPSG diagnostic algorithm.The scourge of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is the lack of an international agreement on the screening and diagnosis among the pre-eminent diabetes, obstetric, and health care organizations (1). Therefore, without a globally accepted guideline, the diagnosis of GDM causes a great deal of clinical confusion (2). In March 2010, the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Group (IADPSG) issued consensus guidelines to potentially attain a single approach for GDM diagnosis worldwide (3).The inconsistency in GDM diagnosis is evident in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), which has the second highest prevalence of type 2 diabetes (18.7%) in the world (4). GDM in the UAE varies from 7.9 to 24.9%, depending on which of the six well-accepted criteria are used for diagnosis (2). The popular American Diabetes Association (ADA) criteria (5) demonstrates a prevalence of 10.6–14.7% (2,6–8). In this population, multiple studies have confirmed that the initial fasting plasma glucose (FPG) result of the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) is excellent in determining the need to continue with the OGTT (6,9–10); however, its efficiency depends on the criteria used for GDM diagnosis (6). The aim of this study was to determine, in this high-risk population, the impact of the new IADPSG criteria on 1) the diagnosis of GDM compared with the ADA criteria and 2) the FPG to predict GDM in order to decide whether to proceed with the OGTT.     

Diabetes and abnormal glucose tolerance in women with previous gestational diabetes

OBJECTIVE: In Spanish women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), we aimed to study the progression to diabetes and abnormal glucose tolerance (AGT) and identify predictive factors. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: In 696 women with GDM and 70 control women, glucose tolerance was evaluated postpartum and at 5-year intervals. RESULTS: In the GDM group, the cumulative risk for diabetes and AGT was 13.8 and 42.4% after 11 years compared with 0 and 2.8% in control women, respectively (P < 0.05). Independent predictive factors for diabetes were previous hyperglycemia, four abnormal glucose values on the diagnostic oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) or overt diabetes during pregnancy, 2-h blood glucose on the diagnostic OGTT >/=11.7 mmol/l, gestational age at diagnosis <24 weeks, and prepregnancy BMI >/=26.4 kg/m(2). All of these factors (some with different cutoff points) in addition to fasting glycemia were predictors of AGT also. The risk was nonlinear. Four abnormal glucose values on the diagnostic OGTT or overt diabetes during pregnancy was the strongest predictive factor for diabetes (relative risk 3.92), and prepregnancy BMI was the predictive factor with the highest attributable fraction in the whole group (13.3%). When first postpartum OGTT data were included in the analysis, predictors changed, but the overall prediction was similar. CONCLUSIONS: Spanish women with GDM have an increased risk of diabetes and AGT. Predictive factors display a nonlinear relationship. The strongest predictive factor for diabetes was four abnormal glucose values on the diagnostic OGTT or overt diabetes during pregnancy; the factor with the highest attributable fraction in the whole group was prepregnancy BMI.     

The prevalence of diabetes in the kingdom of Tonga

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of diabetes, impaired glucose metabolism, and related risk factors in Tonga. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A randomly selected representative national sample of 1,024 people aged >15 years was surveyed. Each participant had fasting blood glucose and HbA(1c) measured. Subjects with a fasting blood glucose >5.0 mmol/l (90 mg/dl) and <11.1 mmol/l (200 mg/dl) or a fasting blood glucose < or =5.0 mmol/l and an HbA(1c) >6.0% and every fifth subject with a fasting blood glucose < or =5.0 mmol/l and a normal HbA(1c) had a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). A total of 472 individuals had an OGTT based on these criteria. Subjects with a fasting blood glucose > or =11.1 mmol/l and an elevated HbA(1c) were diagnosed as having diabetes. RESULTS: The mean age was 41.3 years, and the mean BMI was 32.3 kg/m(2). The age-standardized prevalence of diabetes was 15.1% (CI 12.5-17.6), 12.2% (8.7-15.8) in men and 17.6% (14.0-21.1) in women (NS), of which only 2.1% was previously diagnosed. A total of 75% of people with newly diagnosed diabetes had a fasting plasma glucose > or =7.0 mmol/l (126 mg/dl). The prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance was 9.4% (7.3-11.5) and of impaired fasting glycemia 1.6% (0.7-2.6). Undiagnosed diabetes was significantly associated with increasing age, obesity, hypertension, and a family history of diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: The current prevalence of diabetes in Tonga is 15.1%, of which 80% is undiagnosed. A similar survey in 1973 reported a 7.5% diabetes prevalence, indicating a doubling of diabetes over the past 25 years. In addition, lesser degrees of glucose intolerance are common, and much of the community is overweight     

Women with impaired glucose tolerance during pregnancy have significantly poor pregnancy outcomes

OBJECTIVE: This article tests the hypothesis that women with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) have the same pregnancy outcomes as those of their counterparts with normal glucose tolerance. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: From December 1998 to December 1999, 84 of 90 antenatal care base units (ACBUs) under the Tianjin Antenatal Care Network in China participated in the first screening program for gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). A total of 9,471 pregnant women under the care of participating ACBUs were screened. Of the women screened, 154 were positive for IGT. Of the 154 women, 102 opted for conventional obstetric care. The comparison group was 302 women of normal glucose tolerance (NGT). The initial screening consisted of a 50-g 1-h glucose test, and was carried out at 26-30 gestational weeks. Women with a serum glucose > or =7.8 mmol/l were followed up with a 75-g 2-h oral glucose tolerance test. The World Health Organization's diagnostic criteria for GDM were used. RESULTS: Women with IGT were at increased risk for premature rupture of membranes (P-ROM) (odds ratio [OR] 10.07; 95% CI 2.90-34.93); preterm birth (6.42; 1.46-28.34); breech presentation (3.47; 1.11-10.84); and high birth weight (90th percentile or 4,000 g) (2.42; 1.07-5.46); adjusting for maternal age, pregravid BMI, hospital levels, and other confounding factors. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of IGT in pregnancy is predictive of poor pregnancy outcomes.     

The clinical impact of screening for gestational diabetes.

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is defined as carbohydrate intolerance during pregnancy. In Denmark the health service offers selective screening for GDM, i.e., admission to an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) after pre-screening with interview for clinical risk factors for GDM, two capillary fasting blood glucose (cFBG) measurements and a urine test for glucosuria. The aim of the present study was to investigate the power of the pre-screening to identify GDM and the screening to predict adverse clinical outcome. A retrospective investigation of pregnant women undergoing screening during 1998 at Vejle County Hospital, Denmark was undertaken. The two most frequent pre-screening criteria for OGTT were body-mass index (BMI) > or = 27 kg/m2 and age > or = 35 years. The highest odds ratio (OR) of 9.07 (95% CI: 2.60 to 63.70) for GDM had glucosuria and the lowest (zero) had cFBG. The frequency of complicated delivery was similar in GDM (58%) compared to non-GDM (56%). The best predictor of complicated delivery was a BMI with OR = 1.50 (95% CI: 0.87 to 2.60) for BMI > or = 27 kg/m2 vs. < 27 kg/m2. The best predictor of adverse neonatal outcome was a capillary blood glucose 120 min after glucose load (cBG(120 min)) > or = 9.0 mmol/l (OR = 3.18, 95% CI: 1.14 to 8.89). The intermediary endpoint GDM was not superior for predicting adverse maternal and neonatal outcome. The cumulative probability distribution of cBG(120 min) after a 75 g glucose load was not homogeneously distributed in groups stratified according to maternal and foetal outcome. A changed slope was seen after cBG(120 min) 9.0 mmol/l. Screening cFBG of 4.1 mmol/l was unable to predict GDM and adverse outcome. Glucosuria was too rare to be effective as a screening tool. Pre-screening did not identify GDM. The best predictor of complicated delivery was a high BMI. The best predictor of foetal adverse outcome was cBG120 miin > or = 9.0 mmol/l after a 75 g glucose load. Identical fraction complications were present in GDM and non-GDM. A refinement of the screening procedure is highly needed, and this has been initiated in Denmark.     

The clinical usefulness of glucose tolerance testing in gestational diabetes to predict early postpartum diabetes mellitus.

We examined the clinical usefulness of antepartum clinical characteristics, along with measures of glucose tolerance, in Dutch multiethnic women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) for their ability to predict type 2 diabetes within 6 months of delivery (early postpartum diabetes). The present study comprised a cross-sectional 5-year investigation (1998-2003) of a consecutive series of 168 women with GDM identified by a two-stage protocol at 16-33 weeks of gestation. The following data were collected for all women: age and gestational age at entry into the study; prepregnancy body mass index (BMI); ethnicity; obstetric and clinical history, including the onset of early postpartum diabetes; pregnancy outcome; level of fasting C-peptide; and glycemic parameters of 50-g 1-h glucose challenge test and 100-g 3-h oral glucose tolerance test (diagnostic OGTT). We used receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis to test the clinical usefulness of the glycemic parameters. A total of 11 women (6.5%) developed early postpartum diabetes. Apart from family history of diabetes (p = 0.052), anthropometric, maternal, and neonatal clinical parameters showed no association with early postpartum diabetes in univariate analyses. The level of fasting glucose, and both the glucose challenge test and diagnostic OGTT post-load glucose levels and glucose areas were associated with early postpartum diabetes. ROC curve analysis identifiedall three glucose challenge-test parameters, including fasting glucose concentration, as poor diagnostic tests, with a positive predictive value of approximately 22%, whereas the positive predictive value associated with the area under the diagnostic OGTT curve increased progressively over monitoring time from 20.6% to 100%. Using a 3-h OGTT glucose area threshold of 35.7 mmol.h/L resulted in 100% sensitivity and 100% specificity, identifying the 11 women who developed early postpartum diabetes. In summary, we can conclude from the present analysis that early postpartum diabetes is rare in GDM women (6.5%), and that the clinical usefulness of the total area under the diagnostic 3-h OGTT is superior to all other glycemic parameters for detecting early postpartum diabetes.     

Evaluation of the Value of Fasting Plasma Glucose in the First Prenatal Visit to Diagnose Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in China

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the value of fasting plasma glucose (FPG) value in the first prenatal visit to diagnose gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Medical records of 17,186 pregnant women attending prenatal clinics in 13 hospitals in China, including the Peking University First Hospital (PUFH), were examined. Patients with pre-GDM were excluded; data for FPG at the first prenatal visit and one-step GDM screening with 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) performed between 24 and 28 weeks of gestation were collected and analyzed.

RESULTS

The median ± SD FPG value was 4.58 ± 0.437. FPG decreased with increasing gestational age. FPG level at the first prenatal visit was strongly correlated with GDM diagnosed at 24–28 gestational weeks (χ² = 959.3, P < 0.001). The incidences of GDM were 37.0, 52.7, and 66.2%, respectively, for women with FPG at the first prenatal visit between 5.10 and 5.59, 5.60 and 6.09, and 6.10–6.99 mmol/L. The data of PUFH were not statistically different from other hospitals.

CONCLUSIONS

Pregnant women (6.10 ≤ FPG < 7.00 mmol/L) should be considered and treated as GDM to improve outcomes; for women with FPG between 5.10 and 6.09 mmol/L, nutrition and exercise advice should be provided. An OGTT should be performed at 24–28 weeks to confirm or rule out GDM. Based on our data, we cannot support an FPG value ≥5.10 mmol/L at the first prenatal visit as the criterion for diagnosis of GDM.Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a one of the most common medical conditions associated with pregnancy. It was earlier defined as “hyperglycemia first recognized during pregnancy” and has more recently (2012) been described by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) as diabetes diagnosed during pregnancy that is not clearly overt diabetes (1). GDM has health consequences for both the mother and her offspring not only in the short term but also in the long term. Mothers with history of GDM have significantly higher risk of GDM during subsequent pregnancies (2) and type 2 diabetes and premature cardiovascular disease in the medium and long term, while offspring of GDM pregnancy have greater risk of developing obesity, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, etc., in youth and adult life (3–5).The Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) Study demonstrated that the risk of adverse maternal, fetal, and neonatal outcomes continuously increases as a function of maternal glycemia at 24–28 weeks even within ranges previously considered normal for pregnancy (6). After reviewing the results of the HAPO Study, many international diabetes study groups, including the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) (7) and ADA (1), have adopted the 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) at 24–28 weeks as a screening and diagnostic test and defined new lower cutoff values for GDM diagnosis. Other studies support the new criteria (8–10). These new criteria also mean that more women will be diagnosed with GDM compared with the past; e.g., in the United Arab Emirates, more cases of GDM are diagnosed using the new standard compared with the old one (37.7 vs. 12.9%, respectively) (10). The Ministry of Health (MOH) of China published the diagnostic criteria for GDM on 1 July 2011, which have been put into effect from 1 December 2011 (11); it recommends screening with a fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test at the first prenatal visit to rule out previously undiagnosed preexisting diabetes and a 75-g OGTT between 24 and 28 weeks’ gestation for GDM diagnosis. The debate on GDM screening and diagnosis still persists in the global academic circles and professional societies; e.g., in the U.S., the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists continues to recommend the old diagnostic criteria of 2011 (100-g, 3-h OGTT test) (12).The possibility that women may have previously undiagnosed type 2 diabetes when they enter pregnancy is increasingly real and likely as the age of onset of type 2 diabetes keeps decreasing, whereas the age of conception keeps increasing. How to screen women at the first prenatal visit to rule out preexisting diabetes not previously known is an important issue. Performing an FPG test at first prenatal visit has been recommended for screening. The feasibility and applicability of this in low-resource settings are obvious issues (13). However, when feasible, another point of debate is the cutoff value to make the diagnosis. IADPSG and ADA have different opinions on this matter. IADPSG uses fasting glucose ≥5.10 mmol/L as the GDM diagnostic criteria at the first prenatal visit and the whole duration of pregnancy, while the ADA recommends that the first prenatal fasting glucose test only be used to identify overt diabetes (≥7.00 mmol/L) and that OGTT during the 24–28th weeks is needed for GDM screening and diagnosis. A study in 2009 reported that higher first-trimester fasting glucose increases the risk for some complications and implied that high-risk women would not get appropriate attention if the diagnosis was not made during the first prenatal visit (14). Mills et al. (15) have shown that there is physiological reduction in FPG concentration in normal pregnancy. In China, as in many other developing countries, the time for the first prenatal visit varies a lot in urban and rural settings; therefore, the value of FPG during the first prenatal visit to screen for preexisting previously undiagnosed diabetes as well as for GDM diagnosis in the first prenatal visit requires further investigation.