Analgesia and anesthesia for assisted reproductive technologies

Background

Oocyte retrieval for in vitro fertilization (IVF) is one of the most common minor surgical procedures.

Objectives

To give an update on anesthesia practices used currently in the United States and Europe in assisted reproductive technology, and discuss the safety or the potential risks for oocyte and embryo quality.

Search strategy

Electronic search of MEDLINE for literature published between 1972 and 2008.

Selection criteria

Relevant studies on the types of anesthesia used for oocyte retrieval and the impact on oocyte and embryo quality.

Data collection and analysis

Relevant studies were reviewed by the authors and the ones of significant scientific merit, based on methodology, were included.

Main results

Types of anesthesia that may be used for transvaginal follicular aspiration and oocyte retrieval include: general anesthesia, neuraxial anesthesia, conscious sedation, injection of local anesthetic agents into the cervix or the vaginal wall, or any combination of the above. Conscious sedation is most commonly used in IVF because it is relatively safe and does not require the presence of an anesthesiologist when opioids or benzodiazepines are used. Propofol is the preferred anesthetic agent, but should be used by specially trained personnel.

Conclusion

Conscious sedation is the most popular method of anesthesia used in IVF. Presently, a combination of propofol, fentanyl, and midazolam is used frequently. It is easy to administer in cooperative and motivated patients and is safe in healthy individuals; it has a relatively low risk for adverse effects on oocyte and embryo quality and pregnancy rates.     

腰麻及硬膜外麻醉联合应用于产科分娩镇痛的临床观察

目的探讨联合应用腰麻及硬膜外麻醉（ＣＳＥＡ）减轻或消除产痛以及对产程、胎儿、分娩方式的影响。方法选择８０例无产科、麻醉禁忌证的初产妇（观察组）,在宫口开大２～３ｃｍ时,给予联合腰麻及硬膜外麻醉,并与同期条件相似、未给予任何镇痛方法的８０例初产妇进行对照（对照组）。比较两组产痛程度、产程进展速度、分娩方式及对胎儿的影响。结果观察组镇痛有效率较对照组明显升高（Ｐ＜０．０１）。观察组活跃期较对照组缩短,宫颈扩张速度加快、剖宫产率下降,经阴道助产分娩率增高（Ｐ＜０．０５）。胎儿窘迫及新生儿窒息、产后出血发生率两组比较,差异均无显著性（Ｐ＞０．０５）。结论ＣＳＥＡ应用于产科,可达到分娩镇痛、加速产程、降低剖宫产率的作用,且对胎儿无不良影响,值得推广应用     

Analgesia and anesthesia in labor

Whether given as an epidural, spinal, or combination, regional anesthesia is an integral part of obstetrics in the United States. A variety of drugs and dosages are used in various combinations, with no one protocol exceeding others in terms of efficacy and safety. The availability of anesthesia and analgesia has had an extraordinary impact on the field of obstetrics in the twentieth century. Knowledge of the techniques and medications used, their potential toxicities, and effects on the labor process itself can only enhance obstetricians' management of the parturient in labor.     

Pain management during labor and vaginal birth

Neuraxial analgesia provides excellent pain relief in labor. Optimizing initiation and maintenance of neuraxial labor analgesia requires different strategies. Combined spinal-epidurals or dural puncture epidurals may offer advantages over traditional epidurals. Ultrasound is useful in certain patients. Maintenance of analgesia is best achieved with a background regimen (either programmed intermittent boluses or a continuous epidural infusion) supplemented with patient-controlled epidural analgesia and using dilute local anesthetics combined with opioids such as fentanyl. Nitrous oxide and systemic opioids are also used for pain relief. Nitrous oxide may improve satisfaction despite variable effects on pain. Systemic opioids can be administered by healthcare providers or using patient-controlled analgesia. Appropriate choice of drug should take into account the stage and progression of labor, local safety protocols, and maternal and fetal/neonatal side effects. Pain in labor is complex, and women should fully participate in the decision-making process before any one modality is selected.     

Intrapartum pain: pharmacologic management

Even with the tremendous therapeutic benefit of nonpharmaceutical pain relief measures for laboring women, pharmaceutical therapies often are needed. Nurses and other health care providers need to be familiar with the differing pharmaceutical properties of commonly prescribed pain-relieving drugs. The pharmaceutical properties of sedatives and hypnotics, opioids, and local anesthetic agents used to relieve pain during labor and delivery are reviewed. Individualization of drug therapy and maximal therapeutic effects result when the health care provider is informed about the pharmaceutical properties of analgesic and anesthetic agents so that a wise choice can be made.     

Analgesia for circumcision: effects on newborn behavior and mother/infant interaction

OBJECTIVE: To test the effectiveness of acetaminophen for pain management during and after circumcision. DESIGN: A randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled, pretest-posttest design. SETTING: Level III nursery at a Midwestern hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Sixty full-term newborns, whose mothers had uncomplicated pregnancies and vaginal deliveries. INTERVENTIONS: Administration of 10 mg/kg acetaminophen or placebo 1 hour before circumcision. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Behaviors (clarity of cues and responsiveness) were observed in newborns during a feeding interaction, and pain distress (percentage of time crying and heart rate) was assessed during and after the circumcision. RESULTS: ANCOVA revealed significant group differences in subscales of the NCAFS (Nursing Child Assessment Feeding Scale) for newborns, whereas statistically significant differences for mothers were found in the sensitivity to cues and social-emotional growth-fostering scales. A significant increase in heart rate and crying time during the circumcision was noted; however, no significant difference was observed between groups. At the diaper change after the circumcision, the percentage of cry did suggest an effect from the analgesia. CONCLUSIONS: These findings reinforce the reciprocal, synchronous nature of mother-infant interactions during the early postpartum period and the need for pain control after circumcision to promote neonatal comfort and improve mother-infant interaction.     

Monitoring of transcutaneous PO2 in the fetus and mother during normal labor

Transcutaneous PO2 (tcPO2) measurement is a non-invasive method which gives continuous information about central PO2. The method has previously been testes primarily on newborns and adults, and reports on the applicability of the method on the fetus during labor are still scanty and restricted to case reports. This paper reports on a systematic study of intrapartum fetal and maternal tcPO2-monitoring. The material is comprised of 19 parturients, the majority being nulliparae. All fetal presentations were vertex. The tcPO2 recordings averaged one hour in duration (Tab. I). FHR was recorded simultaneously. In 12 cases the electrode was affixed with glue, and in 7 cases a suction device was used for fixation. The electrode was attached when the cervix was dilated 4 to 6 cm. The mean tcPO2 was 20 mm Hg in the beginning of the registration, and showed a small decline in level throughout labor reaching 14 mmHg at the end of the registration period (Fig. 5). These values are in good agreement with those found by other authors in previous investigations. In some of the present cases, very low tcPO2 values were recorded. The relevance of these low tcPO2 values is unclear, and it is impossible to determine to what extent these tracings have true physiological relevance versus might be due to technical factors.     

Lower epidural anesthesia use associated with labor support by student nurse doulas: implications for intrapartal nursing practice

Interventions of baccalaureate nursing students, trained as doulas, were examined for their association with epidural anesthetic use. Doulas, trained to support laboring mothers, are associated with shorter labors and fewer medical interventions. Data from a convenience sample of 89 vaginal births attended between 1999 and 2002 were analyzed. Analysis showed an association of lower epidural use with increased complementary doula interventions (.62 OR, P=.003) and an association of higher epidural use with longer labors (1.22 OR, P=.004). No significant association was found between epidural use and parity, income, education and type of health care provider. These findings support previous research of decreased analgesia use by doula-supported women and suggest benefits of the interventions by student nurse doulas. Students trained in providing low-tech supportive care may change the environment for intrapartum nursing practice. Institutional changes may be required to allow greater opportunity for intrapartal nurses to provide support to laboring women.     

分娩镇痛研究进展

分娩镇痛方法众多,目前分娩镇痛的最佳选择是椎管内阻滞,包括硬膜外阻滞、蛛网膜下腔阻滞和腰麻-硬膜外联合阻滞(CSE),较新的技术还有硬膜穿孔后硬膜外镇痛。单独或与椎管内阻滞合用的其他药物性镇痛方法有吸入麻醉、静脉麻醉。另外还有一些非药物镇痛方式,如中医针灸、经皮电子神经刺激(TENS)、水疗、催眠、瑜伽、分娩球及按摩放松技术等,这些方法用于分娩镇痛管理的数据是有限的,其镇痛作用低于标准的药物镇痛,可作为药物镇痛的辅助疗法。现就椎管内阻滞对产程、分娩结局、泌乳、产妇发热、新生儿的影响及各种椎管内阻滞方法的研究进展进行综述,以加深共识,了解各种分娩镇痛特点,指导进一步的研究。     

分娩疼痛机制与常用分娩镇痛方法

分娩疼痛是妇女分娩过程中产生的一种复杂的生理心理活动,疼痛级别高、持续时间长,对分娩会造成极为不利的影响。用以应对的办法是分娩镇痛,即设法使分娩时的疼痛减轻或消失,其包括药物性镇痛和非药物性镇痛。药物性镇痛是指应用麻醉药或镇痛、镇静药来达到镇痛效果,是分娩镇痛的主要措施;非药物性镇痛则是通过心理支持、物理治疗等方法缓解疼痛,是分娩镇痛的研究热点。理想的分娩镇痛方法可明显减轻产妇疼痛程度,并确保母婴安全。综述分娩疼痛的机制及其对分娩造成的影响、常用的分娩镇痛方法及其利弊,了解分娩镇痛特点,以探索高效且易于被接受的分娩镇痛措施。     

腰麻-硬膜外联合麻醉及硬膜外自控分娩镇痛始于产程潜伏期与活跃期的比较

目的 比较腰麻-硬膜外联合麻醉及硬膜外自控分娩镇痛始于产程潜伏期与活跃期的临床效果、对母婴应激反应的影响和脐带血中的罗哌卡因浓度. 方法 将80例于2009年1月至6月在首都医科大学附属北京友谊医院产科分娩且自愿接受分娩镇痛的足月、单胎、头位初产妇,随机分为潜伏期组和活跃期组(各40例),分别于潜伏期(宫口扩张0.5～2.5 cm)和活跃期(宫口扩张≥3.0 cm)于蛛网膜下腔给予罗哌卡因2 mg+芬太尼10 μg,随后采用0.1 ％ 罗哌卡因+芬太尼2 μg/ml硬膜外患者自控镇痛模式开始分娩镇痛,记录视觉模拟评分(visual analogue score,VAS)的镇痛评分、下肢肌力、产程时间、分娩方式、药物用量及产妇满意度,检测镇痛前、娩出胎儿即刻产妇静脉血和胎儿娩出后脐带血皮质醇浓度(放射免疫法)及脐带血罗哌卡因浓度(高效液相色谱法).以同期相同条件不接受分娩镇痛的40例产妇为对照组,采用x2或t检验和方差分析进行统计学比较.结果 (1)镇痛后5 min始至宫口开全过程中,潜伏期组和活跃期组VAS评分仅在宫口7.0～8.0cm及宫口开全时低于对照组[宫口7.0～8.0 cm:(2.9±1.4)分、(2.6±1.5)分与(9.2±0.7)分,F=201.50,P＜0.01;宫口开全:(4.7±2.2)分、(3.6±2.0)分与(9.1±0.7)分,F=62.07,P＜0.01].(2)胎儿娩出即刻母体血皮质醇浓度较镇痛前增高,但潜伏期组和活跃期组均比对照组增高幅度小[(761±125)μg/L、(731±184) μg/L与(902±172) μg/L,t=-3.491和-3.483,P均＜0.01],而潜伏期与活跃组2组间差异无统计学意义;3组间脐带血皮质醇浓度差异无统计学意义[(168±46) μg/L、(159±49) μg/L与(170±86) μg/L,F=0.23.P＞0.05].(3)胎儿娩出即刻潜伏期组和活跃期组脐带血罗哌卡因浓度分别为(0.21±0.10) mg/L和(0.20±0.03) mg/L(t=0.557,P＞0.05).(4)第一产程、第二产程时间,催产素使用率,新生儿体重,新生儿1 min、5 min Apgar评分3组间差异均无统计学意义(P均＞0.05).与对照组相比,潜伏期组和活跃期组自然分娩率较高(75.0％、85.0％与52.5％,P＜0.05)、剖宫产率较低(20.0％、15.0％与45.0％,P＜0.05),潜伏期组镇痛时间长于活跃期组[(215±143) min与(118±50) min,t=3.722,P＜0.01],芬太尼用量大[(28±11) μg与(17±6)μg,t=5.084,P＜0.01]. 结论 腰麻-硬膜外联合分娩镇痛能降低剖宫产率和母体应激反应,且不延长产程,不降低胎儿的应激水平;始于潜伏期并不明显增加脐带血药物浓度.     

罗哌卡因无痛分娩对产程及母婴影响的研究

目的 研究罗哌卡因和芬太尼无痛分娩对产程及母婴的影响。方法 将要求阴道分娩者分为无痛组56例和普通组70例。无痛组产程中用芬太尼0．05mg＋罗哌卡因100mg连续硬膜外麻醉，余处理同普通组。观察两组产妇各产程时间、产后出血量、剖宫产率、缩宫素使用率和新生儿Apgar评分。结果 无痛组产程延长，缩官素使用率明显增加，产后出血量、剖宫产率和新生儿Apgar评分两组无明显差异。结论 使用罗哌卡因和芬太尼无痛分娩对产妇官缩有抑制作用，对新生儿无明显不良影响。     

Racial and ethnic disparities in the provision of epidural analgesia to Georgia Medicaid beneficiaries during labor and delivery

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to measure racial and ethnic differences in the proportion of Medicaid patients who receive epidural analgesia during labor and delivery. STUDY DESIGN: Using 1998 Georgia Medicaid claims data in a standard State Medicaid Research File format, we identified claims for epidural analgesia among all women who had a normal vaginal delivery during 1998. RESULTS: There were 29,833 women who met our inclusion criteria, of whom 15,936 (53.4%) had epidural analgesia. Epidural analgesia rates were lower for black women (49.5%), Hispanic women (35.3%), and Asian women (48.1%) than for white, non-Hispanic women (59.6%; P<.001). Rural women had lower epidural rates (39.2%) than urban women (62.1%). CONCLUSION: The study subjects all had identical Medicaid insurance and met the same low-income Medicaid eligibility criteria, yet race/ethnicity was still a significant predictor of epidural analgesia after we had controlled for age, rural-urban residence, and availability of anesthesiologists. Further studies are needed to assess perceived benefits, risks, costs, and obstacles to epidural analgesia that are perceived by patients, physicians, nurses, and midwives.     

Trends and issues in labor induction in the United States: implications for clinical practice

The labor induction rate is at an all-time high in the United States. Although induction of labor is recommended as a therapeutic option only when the benefits of expeditious birth outweigh the risks of continuing the pregnancy, a "psychosocial indication" has become a common rationale for elective induction in the United States. It is unlikely that all women are provided with a complete discussion of the cascade of interventions that frequently accompany labor induction and the risks of cesarean birth. Although at first glance elective labor induction may seem more convenient, an appreciation of the inconvenience of the greater rates of interventions, the longer labor and overall hospital stay, the higher costs, the additional attention required by the primary health care provider when complications occur, and the risk of an adverse outcome for a mother or baby after an elective procedure with subsequent litigation should cause everyone to exercise caution and reevaluate current practice. Professional organizations should take proactive steps to advocate for pregnant women so they are fully aware of the risks and benefits. A public campaign to discourage elective labor induction for nulliparous women is worth serious consideration.