分娩镇痛研究进展

分娩镇痛方法众多,目前分娩镇痛的最佳选择是椎管内阻滞,包括硬膜外阻滞、蛛网膜下腔阻滞和腰麻-硬膜外联合阻滞(CSE),较新的技术还有硬膜穿孔后硬膜外镇痛。单独或与椎管内阻滞合用的其他药物性镇痛方法有吸入麻醉、静脉麻醉。另外还有一些非药物镇痛方式,如中医针灸、经皮电子神经刺激(TENS)、水疗、催眠、瑜伽、分娩球及按摩放松技术等,这些方法用于分娩镇痛管理的数据是有限的,其镇痛作用低于标准的药物镇痛,可作为药物镇痛的辅助疗法。现就椎管内阻滞对产程、分娩结局、泌乳、产妇发热、新生儿的影响及各种椎管内阻滞方法的研究进展进行综述,以加深共识,了解各种分娩镇痛特点,指导进一步的研究。     

ACOG Committee Opinion #295: pain relief during labor

Pain management should be provided whenever medically indicated. The American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) believe that women requesting epidural analgesia during labor should not be deprived of this service based on their insurance or inadequate nursing participation in the management of regional analgesic modalities. Furthermore, in an effort to allow the maximum number of patients to benefit from neuraxial analgesia, ASA and ACOG believe that labor nurses should not be restricted from participating in the management of pain relief during labor.     

Uneventful epidural labor analgesia and vaginal delivery in a parturient with Arnold-Chiari malformation type I and sickle cell disease

Arnold-Chiari malformation is a disorder of the hindbrain which can lead to altered craniospinal pressures and abnormal flow of cerebrospinal fluid. The possibility of increased intracranial pressure imparts significant risk during labor and delivery, and has led to concern over the use of neuraxial anesthesia. Sickle cell disease is a disorder of abnormal hemoglobin that is prone to sickling under stressful conditions. The physiologic and metabolic changes associated with pregnancy and labor can precipitate sickling, which increases risks for both the mother and the fetus. Vaso-occlusive pain crisis in a parturient with sickle cell disease has been shown to improve with the initiation of neuraxial anesthesia. We present the first reported case of a parturient with both Arnold-Chiari malformation type I and sickle cell disease who presented to labor and delivery with acute pain crisis and who subsequently received epidural labor analgesia and underwent successful vaginal delivery. We include a discussion of the risks associated with pregnancy, labor, neuraxial anesthesia, and delivery in a patient with Arnold-Chiari malformation type I and sickle cell disease.     

Labor pain and its management with the combined spinal–epidural analgesia: what does an obstetrician need to know?

Most women rate pain of childbirth as the most painful experience of their lives. Lumbar epidural analgesia is widely considered as the most effective method of providing pain relief in labor. However, lumbar epidural analgesia for labor is not a standard (generic) procedure and many technical modifications have been developed and introduced into clinical practice over time. The combined spinal–epidural labor analgesia technique (CSEA) has attained wide spread popularity in obstetric anesthesia worldwide. The onset of analgesia is rapid and reliable, and maternal satisfaction is very high. While there still remains some concern about dural puncture, and while the pros and cons of using the CSEA as opposed to traditional epidural for labor pain are still being debated, it appears certain that the CSEA technique offers many unique advantages to the pregnant woman.     

Anesthesia Drugs in the Obstetric and Gynecologic Practice

The obstetrician-gynecologist is often solely responsible for analgesia/sedation and regional blocks during office-based and outpatient procedures. The American Society of Anesthesiologists guidelines for the provision of analgesia/sedation for nonanesthesiologists provide helpful recommendations to maximize patient safety during office-based and outpatient procedures. This article provides a review of the fundamentals of sedation/analgesia, monitored anesthesia care, and local anesthetics.Key words: Sedation/analgesia, Monitored anesthesia care, Lipid rescue, Local anesthetic toxicity, Maximum dose recommendationsAnalgesic techniques for obstetric and gynecologic patients include local infiltration and regional blocks with or without sedation, parenteral agents and neuraxial blockade during labor, and general anesthesia for more extensive surgeries and, occasionally, for cesarean deliveries. Although the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) have established goals to ensure prompt provision of anesthetic services in all hospitals providing obstetric care, ensuring such services remains a challenge, particularly in smaller hospitals or in rural locations.¹ As a result, anesthesia expertise may not be available for routine labor management and, rarely, during emergency cesarean deliveries. In addition, the obstetrician-gynecologist (ob-gyn) is often solely or primarily responsible (in conjunction with nursing staff) for analgesia and sedation during office-based or outpatient procedures. This article provides a review of the fundamentals of sedation/analgesia, monitored anesthesia care (MAC), and local anesthetics.     

Popularizing labor analgesia in China.

In China many women in labor are young primigravidas whose fear of labor pain leads them to request cesarean deliveries. While the rate of cesarean deliveries has reached 50% in many hospitals, less than 1% of women in labor are given neuraxial analgesia. The necessary equipment is seldom available in China and many physicians have misconceptions about the risks associated with neuraxial analgesia, which are low with the ultra-low-dosages used today. However, attitudes have begun to change. Meetings held in China have brought together Chinese physicians and world experts on the various epidural and combined spinal-epidural techniques. Thanks to the information and support provided at these meetings clinical trials were carried out, more than 5000 women benefited from labor analgesia, and publications appeared in Chinese journals. An effective, safe, and cost-effective way to provide analgesia to women in labor may slow the increase in cesarean delivery rates across China and improve women's health in general.     

阴道分娩镇痛相关热点问题

分娩镇痛总体上分为非药物性和药物性镇痛方法。前者以拉玛泽呼吸镇痛法、导乐陪伴分娩等为主,后者主要是镇痛效果切实可靠的椎管内阻滞镇痛。文章就镇痛对剖宫产率、助产率、胎心率及母体发热的影响等热点问题进行了论述,也阐述了潜伏期镇痛和静脉镇痛的可行性。     

Combined spinal-epidural analgesia for labor: breakthrough or unjustified invasion?

The combined spina-epidural (CSE) technique has become increasingly popular for labor analgesia. The advantages of the CSE include more rapid onset of analgesia, reduced total drug dosage, minimal or no motor blockade, and increased patient satisfaction. CSE has also been associated with more rapid cervical dilation when compared to epidural analgesia in nulliparous women in early labor. Despite these potential advantages, the indications for CSE versus epidural analgesia remain unclear and controversial. This review should allow better understanding of the benefits and risks of this technique, and bearing in mind that no ultimate neuraxial analgesic exists, it would seem that CSE should be considered a major breakthrough in the management of labor analgesia.     

Pain management during labor and vaginal birth

Neuraxial analgesia provides excellent pain relief in labor. Optimizing initiation and maintenance of neuraxial labor analgesia requires different strategies. Combined spinal-epidurals or dural puncture epidurals may offer advantages over traditional epidurals. Ultrasound is useful in certain patients. Maintenance of analgesia is best achieved with a background regimen (either programmed intermittent boluses or a continuous epidural infusion) supplemented with patient-controlled epidural analgesia and using dilute local anesthetics combined with opioids such as fentanyl. Nitrous oxide and systemic opioids are also used for pain relief. Nitrous oxide may improve satisfaction despite variable effects on pain. Systemic opioids can be administered by healthcare providers or using patient-controlled analgesia. Appropriate choice of drug should take into account the stage and progression of labor, local safety protocols, and maternal and fetal/neonatal side effects. Pain in labor is complex, and women should fully participate in the decision-making process before any one modality is selected.     

Epidurals Redefined in Analgesia and Anesthesia: A Distinction With a Difference

Advances in our understanding of pain have created a new and meaningful distinction between epidural analgesia and anesthesia. The principles underlying this important difference are reviewed from a childbirth perspective and promote a reconsideration of the role of pain relief in labor versus the need for anesthesia at delivery. An epidural analgesic technique is presented with fresh implications for several old intrapartum practices. The analgesia/ anesthesia distinction in epidural therapy offers new opportunities and flexibility for safety and fulfillment in childbirth.     

分娩镇痛与分娩安全

椎管内分娩镇痛在中国越来越普及。医护人员和产妇及家属对分娩安全和麻醉并发症颇为关注,尤其是对第二产程的影响、新生儿临床结局及严重麻醉并发症。权衡利弊在是否实施各项医疗干预或采取“自然疗法”的决定中至关重要。以患者为中心,以循证医学为基础,以“不伤害产妇”为前提,预见性的临床模式,对分娩安全意义非凡。提供安全有效椎管内分娩镇痛的产科麻醉已经成为现代产房的临床标准。     

Multisite Randomized Controlled Trial of Bladder Management in Labor With Epidural Analgesia/Anesthesia

ObjectiveTo compare the effects of continuous indwelling catheterization with those of intermittent catheterization during labor with epidural analgesia/anesthesia on mode of birth and incidence of urinary tract infection (UTI) symptoms in the postpartum period.DesignRandomized clinical trial.SettingLabor and delivery units at three metropolitan hospitals in the Western United States.ParticipantsWomen (N = 252) who were nulliparous with term, singleton pregnancies in labor with epidural analgesia/anesthesia.MethodsParticipants were randomized to indwelling or intermittent (every 2 hours) catheterization groups after the administration of epidural analgesia/anesthesia during labor. One to 2 weeks after discharge, participants were contacted and questioned about symptoms of UTI.ResultsA total of 252 participants were enrolled in the study: 81% (n = 202) gave birth vaginally, and 19% (n = 50) gave birth via cesarean. Between the indwelling and intermittent catheterization groups, demographic characteristics were similar. We found no significant difference in the incidence of cesarean birth between groups (15.6% vs. 22.5%, p = .172). Overall, 3% of participants reported and sought treatment for symptoms of UTI within 2 weeks with no significant difference between groups (p = .929).ConclusionWe found no differences in mode of birth or symptoms of UTI in women who received indwelling or intermittent catheterization during epidural analgesia/anesthesia. We recommend additional research with objective data for UTI diagnosis and larger samples to study the multiple potential confounding variables associated with cesarean birth after catheterization during epidural analgesia/anesthesia.     

Comfort and Satisfaction Among Women Who Used Different Options for Analgesia During Labor and Birth

ObjectiveTo determine if comfort and satisfaction with the birth experience differed among women who used nitrous oxide (N₂O), epidural analgesia, or no analgesia during labor and birth.DesignNonexperimental, cross-sectional, between-subjects.SettingMaternity care units in three U.S. Midwest hospitals from June to October 2019.ParticipantsA total of 84 women with spontaneous vaginal birth at term gestation (≥37 weeks).MethodsWomen were grouped according to self-selected pain management method: N₂O and oxygen (50%/50% mixture) only (n = 28), epidural analgesia (may have been in combination with other analgesia options; n = 28), or no analgesia (n = 28). We collected data within 6 hours after childbirth using the Birth Satisfaction Scale–Revised and the researcher-modified Childbirth Comfort Questionnaire. We analyzed data for differences in comfort and satisfaction scores among the three groups of women using analysis of variance.ResultsWe found no statistically significant differences related to comfort during labor and birth among women who used N₂O only, epidural analgesia, or no analgesia during labor and birth, F(2, 81) = 1.11, p = .34. We also found no statistically significant differences related to satisfaction with the birth experience among women who used N₂O only, epidural analgesia, or no analgesia during labor and birth, F(2, 81) = .084, p = .92.ConclusionOur finding of no statistically significant differences in comfort and satisfaction with the birth experience across groups highlights the need to present comprehensive pain management options to women for labor and birth, such as N₂O.     

Labor pain and obstetric analgesia

GOAL AND METHODS: Labor pain is of major concern since most parturients experience significant pain of extremely severe intensity for many. The purpose of this review was to provide an overview of the mechanisms and pathways of labor pain (including new insights on integration of the nociceptive signal) and to emphasize the need of effective labor pain relief. RESULTS: Labor pain can have deleterious effects on the mother, on the fetus and on labor outcome itself. Among the current methods of obstetric analgesia, regional analgesia (the most widespread technique being epidural analgesia) offers the best effectiveness/safety ratio thanks to pharmacological innovations. Systemic analgesia (parenteral opioids, nonopioid painkillers and inhaled anesthetic agents) provides an alternative to regional analgesia but remains less effective and more hazardous. Non-drug approaches (namely psychoprophylaxis and physical methods) may be effective when used with epidural analgesia but are often not potent enough when used alone. CONCLUSION: Despite its complex pathophysiology, labor pain can be efficiently managed. Thanks to multidisciplinary care, obstetric analgesia (mainly epidural analgesia) prevents deleterious effects of labor pain on the mother and fetus.     

Changing patterns of birth asphyxia and trauma over 20 years

Comparison of birth asphyxia and trauma in the same obstetric service during periods 18 years apart shows some reassuring and some disquieting findings. Liberalized cesarean sections, electronic monitoring of fetal heart in labor, and replacement of opiate sedation by epidural anesthesia have had their effect. There has been dramatic reduction in perinatal death and neonatal encephalopathy due to birth asphyxia and trauma and only rarely do affected infants now develop permanent cerebral injury. Severe birth asphyxia, defined by need for prolonged ventilation, has, however, remained unchanged in frequency. Unexpectedly, fractures and paralyses have dramatically increased. The major hazard today for the term infant is the use of midforceps, which has become much more common in parallel with the increased use of pain relief by continuous epidural anesthesia.     

Analgesia and anesthesia in labor

Whether given as an epidural, spinal, or combination, regional anesthesia is an integral part of obstetrics in the United States. A variety of drugs and dosages are used in various combinations, with no one protocol exceeding others in terms of efficacy and safety. The availability of anesthesia and analgesia has had an extraordinary impact on the field of obstetrics in the twentieth century. Knowledge of the techniques and medications used, their potential toxicities, and effects on the labor process itself can only enhance obstetricians' management of the parturient in labor.     

Why epidurals do not always work

The overwhelming majority of epidural catheters placed for labor provide satisfactory analgesia. There are, however, times when the catheter is not sited within the epidural space correctly, the patient's neuraxial anatomy is problematic, or a patient's labor progresses more quickly than expected by the anesthesiologist, and the epidural block does not set up on time. In this article, the basics of neuraxial labor analgesia, the causes of its failure, and the strategies anesthesiologists employ to rescue poorly functioning catheters are reviewed.     

Tokophobia--a multidisciplinary problem

Pathological fear of childbirth known as "tokophobia" affects about 6-10% pregnancies and is of concern mainly because of remarkable sequele regarding women's morbidity, the neurobehavioral development of their children, and cesarean section on maternal request (CSMR). Fear of labor is a multidimensional problem involving a number of biological, psychological and social background factors and may be divided into primary and secondary tokophobia and tokophobia as a symptom of depression. Fear of childbirth is closely related to the fear of labor pain. It appears that women who experience fear, suffer from more pain due to alterations in the mechanisms of pregnancy induced analgesia. Despite no relevant connection between tokophobia and request for effective analgesia for labor pain relief, neuraxial techniques should always be available, especially to women with increased levels of negative emotions. However, epidural analgesia itself may increase fear level at the end and after labor and delivery. The mainstay of tokphobia treatment constitutes psychotherapeutic methods, which decrease negative labor experience; their impact on CSMR is controversial. There is a strong need for multidisciplinary approach to tokophobia due to its complexity and obstetric, anesthesiological, psychological and psychiatric implications.     

Adverse effects of combined spinal-epidural versus traditional epidural analgesia during labor

Objective

To compare two neuraxial block techniques during labor for maternal and fetal effects.

Methods

Women in labor at term with cephalic singleton fetuses were randomized (nonblinded) to receive either labor epidural (EPI) or combined spinal-epidural (CSE) analgesia. Primary outcome was prolonged deceleration (PD) of fetal heart rate. Outcomes also included hypotension, mode of delivery, and efficacy of analgesia by visual analog pain scale (VAPS) before and after block placement.

Results

Randomization occurred in 127 patients: 63 received EPI, 64 received CSE. There was no difference in the rate of PD in the EPI group compared with the CSE group (3.2% vs 6.2% respectively; P = 0.43, RR 2.0; 95% CI 0.4-9.3), rate of cesarean delivery, or mean epidural duration. VAPS ratings were significantly lower in the CSE group.

Conclusions

There were no differences in the rate of PD or other adverse outcomes. Hypotension occurred more frequently with CSE during labor at term. The study supports both EPI and CSE during labor as safe and effective techniques for neuraxial analgesia.     

Labor analgesia for the morbidly obese parturient: an old problem—new solution

Introduction Morbid obesity is perhaps the most common nutritional disorder seen in pregnancy, and morbidly obese parturients have more pregnancy complication than normal body mass index (BMI) pregnant patients. Combined spinal epidural anesthesia (CSEA) has become a well-established alternative to epidural analgesia for labor pain in many institutions. However, due to lack of an appropriately long needle design, its advantages have not been routinely available to laboring morbidly obese patients. Case report I herein, present a case of a morbidly obese parturient whose labor analgesia was managed with CSEA administered with the newly released, commercially available, CSEA needle set, specifically designed for morbidly obese patients.