Risk factors for severe perineal lacerations during childbirth

Background

Severe perineal lacerations represent a significant complication of normal labor with a strong impact on quality of life.

Objectives

To identify factors that lead to the occurrence of severe perineal lacerations.

Search strategy

We searched MEDLINE, Scopus, ClinicalTrials.gov, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Google Scholar and reference lists from all included studies.

Selection criteria

We included prospective and retrospective observational studies.

Data collection and analysis

Predetermined data were collected and analyzed with the Mantel–Haenszel fixed-effects model or the DerSimonian–Laird random-effects model.

Main results

The meta-analysis included 22 studies (n = 651 934). Women with severe perineal tears were more likely to have had heavier infants (mean difference 192.88 g [95% CI, 139.80–245.96 g]), an episiotomy (OR 3.82 [95% CI, 1.96–7.42]), or an operative vaginal delivery (OR 5.10 [95% CI, 3.33–7.83]). Epidural anesthesia (OR 1.95 [95% CI, 1.63–2.32]), labor induction (OR 1.08 [95% CI, 1.02–1.14]), and labor augmentation (OR 1.95 [95% CI, 1.56–2.44]) were also more common among women with perineal lacerations.

Conclusions

Various factors contribute to the occurrence of perineal lacerations. Future studies should consistently evaluate all examined parameters to determine their possible interrelation.     

Trends in major modifiable risk factors for severe perineal trauma, 1996–2006

OBJECTIVE: To examine what effect the major modifiable risk factors for severe perineal trauma have had on the rates of this trauma over time. METHODS: A retrospective observational cohort study of singleton vaginal deliveries taken from a perinatal database for the period 1996 through 2006. RESULTS: A total of 46,239 singleton vertex vaginal deliveries met the inclusion criteria. Major risk factors for severe perineal trauma were increased maternal age (odds ratio [OR] 1.28, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.1-1.5), non-African American ethnicity (OR 1.5, 95% CI 1.3-1.7), nulliparity (OR 4.8, 95% CI 4.11-5.6), fetal birth weight (OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.9-2.4), forceps (OR 8.3, 95% CI 5.4-10.8), vacuum (OR 2.9, 95% CI 1.9-4.4), and midline episiotomy (OR 5.7, 95% CI 5.0-6.4). Evaluation of the changes in rates of these factors over the study period revealed that the decline in the rates of episiotomy and the use of forceps accounted for a reduction in severe lacerations of more than 50%. CONCLUSION: Reduction of severe perineal trauma by restricted use of the 2 modifiable clinical variables, episiotomy and forceps, is evident over time.     

Incidence, severity, and determinants of perineal pain after vaginal delivery: a prospective cohort study

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of perineal pain in the 6 weeks after vaginal delivery and to assess the association between perineal trauma and perineal pain.Study design This was a prospective cohort study of parturients at 1 day, 7 days,' and 6 weeks' post partum in an academic tertiary obstetric unit in Toronto, Canada. Four hundred forty-four women were followed up, including women with an intact perineum (n=84), first-/second-degree tears (n=220), episiotomies (n=97), or third-/fourth-degree tears (n=46). Primary outcome was the incidence of perineal pain on day of interview; secondary outcomes were pain score measurements and interference with daily activities. RESULTS: Perineal trauma was more common among primiparous women, those with operative vaginal deliveries, and those with epidural analgesia during the second stage of labor. The incidence of perineal pain among the groups during the first week was intact perineum 75% (day 1) and 38% (day 7); first-/second-degree tears 95% and 60%; episiotomies 97% and 71%; and third-/fourth-degree tears 100% and 91%. By 6 weeks, the frequency of perineal pain was not statistically different between trauma groups. CONCLUSION: Acute postpartum perineal pain is common among all women. However, perineal pain was more frequent and severe for women with increased perineal trauma.     

Management of the perineum during forceps delivery. Association of episiotomy with the frequency and severity of perineal trauma in women undergoing forceps delivery

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association of the frequency and severity of perineal trauma with episiotomy performed at forceps delivery. STUDY DESIGN: This retrospective study analyzed all forceps deliveries at the Semmelweis Women's Hospital Vienna between February 1999 and July 1999. Evaluation of a possible association of episiotomy with the frequency and severity of perineal trauma was the main objective of the study. Episiotomy was not performed routinely and was either midline or mediolateral. RESULTS: In conjunction with forceps delivery episiotomy, 76/87 women (87%) underwent forceps delivery episiotomy; among those, 49/76 (64%) had a mediolateral episiotomy and 27/76 (36%) a midline episiotomy. The frequency and severity of perineal tears were significantly lower in forceps deliveries when an episiotomy was performed. When analyzing the type of episiotomy, the data revealed a statistically significantly lower frequency of perineal trauma when mediolateral episiotomy was performed as compared to midline episiotomy. CONCLUSION: If obstetric indications necessitate forceps delivery, performance of an episiotomy decreases the risk of perineal tears of all degrees. When analyzing the type of episiotomy, mediolateral episiotomy seems to be more protective against perineal trauma in women undergoing forceps delivery.     

Influence of a pelvic floor training programme to prevent perineal trauma: A quasi-randomised controlled trial

Backgroundperineal injury is common after birth and may be caused by tears or episiotomy or both. Perineal massage has been shown to prevent episiotomies in primiparous women. On the other hand, pelvic floor exercises might have an influence by shortening the first and second stages of labour in the primigravida.Aimthe aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a pelvic floor training following a birth programme on perineal trauma.Designa single-blind quasi-randomized controlled trial with two groups: standard care and intervention.Settinga tertiary, metropolitan hospital in Seville, Spain.Participantswomen (n=466) who were 32 weeks pregnant, having a singleton pregnancy and anticipating a normal birth were randomised. Women in the experimental groups were asked to perform a pelvic floor training programme that included: daily perineal massage and pelvic floor exercises from 32 weeks of pregnancy until birth. They were allocated to an intervention group by clusters (antenatal education groups) randomized 1:1. The control group had standard care that did not involve a perineal/pelvic floor intervention. These women were collected in a labour ward at admission 1:3 by midwives.Resultsoutcomes were analysed by intention-to-treat. Women assigned to the perineal/pelvic floor intervention showed a 31.63% reduction in episiotomy (50.56% versus 82.19%, p<0.001) and a higher likelihood of having an intact perineum (17.61% versus 6.85%, p<0.003). There were also fewer third (5.18% versus 13.12%, p<0.001) and fourth degree-tears (0.52% versus 2.5%, p<0.001). Women allocated to the intervention group also had less postpartum perineal pain (24.57% versus 36.30%, p<0.001) and required less analgesia in the postnatal period (21.14% versus 30.82%, p<0.001).Conclusionsa training programme composed of pelvic floor exercises and perineal massage may prevent episiotomies and tears in primiparous women. This programme can be recommended to primiparous women in order to prevent perineal trauma.Key conclusionthe pelvic floor programme was associated with significantly lower rates of episiotomies and severe perineal trauma; and higher intact perineum when compared with women who received standard care only.Implications for practicethe programme is an effective intervention that we recommend to all women at 32nd week of pregnancy to prevent perineal trauma.     

The role of maternal age and episiotomy in the risk of anal sphincter tears during childbirth

BACKGROUND: Many women who experience anal sphincter tear will suffer from anal incontinence. The most important tool to avoid this is to recognise the obstetric risk factors involved and thereby prevent injury. AIMS: The aim of this study was to analyse and evaluate the risk factors of anal sphincter tear during delivery. METHODS: Of a total of 57,943 vaginal deliveries, we identified 565 women with partial or total rupture of the anal sphincter and compared these women with 565 controls without sphincter tear with respect to possible risk factors. RESULTS: Several factors were significantly associated with sphincter tears, including nulliparity, birthweight, instrumental delivery, episiotomy, malpresentation, maternal age and epidural analgesia. The importance of these variables was further confirmed in a stepwise logistic regression analysis. Age was found to be a significant risk factor only when the birthweight was less than 4000 g. Episiotomy more than doubled the risk of sphincter tear when delivery was non-instrumental. CONCLUSION: There are several independent risk factors that should be considered when making decisions regarding delivery mode. Maternal age and episiotomy in non-instrumental delivery are two of these.     

Long-term impacts of vaginal birth with mediolateral episiotomy on sexual and pelvic dysfunction and perineal pain

Objective: To investigate whether spontaneous vaginal birth with mediolateral episiotomy has any long-term impact on urinary and/or fecal incontinence, sexual dysfunction and perineal pain in primiparous women.

Methods: This matched case-control study included 150 women between 25 and 35 years old who had a singleton childbirth at least five years previously. Patients were grouped as; women who had a spontaneous vaginal delivery with mediolateral episiotomy (Group 1), an elective cesarean delivery (Group 2), and who had no delivery (Group 3). Controls were matched for age and delivery time. Urinary/fecal incontinence were questioned and Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) questionnaire was completed. Total FSFI and domain scores were compared. Statistical evaluation was performed using One-way ANOVA test or χ² test. Statistical significance was defined as p?Results: No women had urinary/fecal incontinence nor sexual dysfunction. Mean total FSFI points in Group 1 were significantly lower than in Groups 2 and 3 (p?=?0.001). There were significant differences in sexual desire between groups 1 and 3 (p?=?0.005), in arousal and in orgasm between both groups 1 and 2 (p?=?0.001 and p?=?0.038, respectively) and groups 1 and 3 (p?=?0.001 and p?=?0.001, respectively). There was no significant difference between groups 2 and 3 in any parameters or total points.

Conclusions: Vaginal delivery with mediolateral episiotomy is not associated with urinary and/or fecal incontinence and sexual dysfunction but associated with a decreased sexual functioning as well as sexual desire, arousal and orgasm within postpartum five years.     

Effect of epidural anaesthesia on clinician-applied force during vaginal delivery

OBJECTIVE: Epidural anesthesia (EA) is used in 80% of vaginal deliveries and is linked to neonatal and maternal trauma. Our objectives were to determine (1) whether EA affected clinician-applied force on the fetus and (2) whether this force influenced perineal trauma. STUDY DESIGN: After informed consent, multiparas with term, cephalic, singletons were delivered by 1 physician wearing a sensor-equipped glove to record force exerted on the fetal head. Those with EA were compared with those without for delivery force parameters. Regression analysis was used to identify predictors of vaginal laceration. RESULTS: The force required for delivery was greater in patients with EA (n = 27) than without (n = 5) (P < .01). Clinical parameters, including birth weight (P = .31) were similar between the groups. Clinician force was similar in those with no versus first- versus second-degree laceration (P = .5). Only birth weight was predictive of laceration (P = .02). CONCLUSION: Epidural use resulted in greater clinician force required for vaginal delivery of the fetus in multiparas, but this force was not associated with perineal trauma.     

Use of hyaluronidase to prevent perineal trauma during spontaneous delivery: a pilot study

Our objective was to compare the frequency, degree, and location of perineal trauma during spontaneous delivery with or without perineal injections of hyaluronidase (HAase). This was a randomized, controlled pilot study, conducted in a midwife‐led hospital birth center in São Paulo, Brazil. Primiparous women (N = 139) were randomly assigned to an intervention group (HAase injection, n = 71) or to a control group (no injection, n = 68). Significant differences were noted between the two groups in frequency of perineal trauma (intervention, 39.4%; control, 76.5%), degree of spontaneous laceration (intervention, 0.0%; control, 82.4%), and laceration located in the posterior region of the perineum (intervention, 54.2%; control, 84.3%). When episiotomy and second‐degree lacerations were considered together and women with intact perineum were excluded from the analysis, the difference between the groups was no longer significant. With the use of the HAase enzyme, the relative risk was 0.5 for perineal trauma and 0.0 for second‐degree lacerations. The present findings suggest that perineal injection of HAase prevented perineal trauma. These findings provide strong rationale for a larger follow‐up study.     

间苯三酚联合硬膜外麻醉分娩镇痛的临床研究

目的探讨间苯三酚联合硬膜外麻醉在分娩过程中,促进产程进展、减轻分娩疼痛等的效果。方法将180例初产妇随机分为3组各60例,在孕妇宫口开大约3cm以上,实验组采用间苯三酚80mg静脉推注联合硬膜外麻醉行无痛分娩,对照1组单纯采用间苯三酚80mg静脉推注;对照2组单纯采用硬膜外腔阻滞麻醉。比较在用药后1h的镇痛效果及产妇运动能力,第一产程活跃期时间、剖宫产率、产后出血量、血氧饱和度和新生儿评分等母儿结局。结果对照1组第一产程活跃期时间、剖宫产率与实验组相比,差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）,但镇痛效果差。对照2组镇痛效果良好,但第一产程活跃期较对照1组和实验组时间明显延长,剖宫产率相对增加,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论间苯三酚联合硬膜外麻醉缩短产程效果明显,镇痛效果良好,对母婴无不良反应,减少了剖宫产。     

Factors associated with spontaneous perineal lacerations in deliveries without episiotomy in a university maternity hospital in the city of Recife,Brazil: a cohort study

Objectives: The objective of this study is to determine factors associated with spontaneous perineal laceration in low-risk pregnant women who delivered vaginally without episiotomy in a university maternity hospital in Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil.

Methods: A prospective cohort study was conducted with 222 low-risk, full-term pregnant women admitted in labor with a single fetus in cephalic presentation. Women with malformed fetuses were excluded from the study. The variables analyzed were: the frequency and severity of lacerations, the women’s biological, sociodemographic, clinical and obstetrical characteristics, neonatal characteristics, and data on their deliveries and procedures. For the data analysis, risk ratios and their 95% confidence intervals were calculated. A significance level of 5% was adopted and multiple regression analysis was performed.

Results: Spontaneous first-degree perineal tears were registered in 47% of the women, second-degree tears in 31%, and third degree tears in only 1.8%. There were no cases of fourth-degree tears. Having experienced normal childbirth previously constituted a protective factor against vaginal tearing (OR?= 0.46; 95%CI: 0.23–0.91; p?=?.027).

Conclusion: The principal protective factor against spontaneous lacerations was having experienced normal childbirth previously. Intrapartum strategies aimed at protecting the perineum and pelvic floor muscle training during prenatal care should be encouraged in these women.     

Advanced stage of cervical carcinoma undiagnosed during antenatal period in term pregnancy and concomitant metastasis on episiotomy scar during delivery: a case report and review of the literature

The objective of this study is to review the implantation of malignant cells of cervical cancer in an episiotomy site. This is the second case of cervical cancer with concomitant episiotomy metastasis in the literature. The treatment consisted of radiochemotherapy. There was no confirmed recurrent disease after 1 year of follow-up in our reported case. In conclusion, pregnancy appears to be a chance for cervical cancer screening as a part of prenatal care. If cervical cancer is diagnosed in a woman after vaginal delivery, she must be examined carefully including the episiotomy site.     

The complication and mode of delivery in Chinese women with severe preeclampsia: a retrospective study

Objective: Severe preeclampsia is a serious threat for pregnant women and fetuses. The complications of severe preeclampsia greatly affect perinatal outcome. This study aimed to investigate the complication and delivery mode of Chinese pregnant women with severe preeclampsia, and analyze the change in these aspects in the past decades. Methods: Clinical data of 1713 pregnant women with severe preeclampsia were collected and analyzed. The patients were divided into two groups: early period (1985–1997) and later period (1998–2010). Results: The complications for severe preeclampsia included preterm birth, fetal distress, postpartum hemorrhage, fetal growth restriction (FGR). Compared to early period, the rates of preterm birth, FGR, oligohydramnios, abnormal pregnancy outcome increased while the rates of fetal distress, postpartum hemorrhage and eclampsia decreased in later period. The rate of cesarean section was 73.073% in the early period and increased to 88.258% in the later period. Accordingly, the rate of natural childbirth, forceps extraction, vacuum extraction and breech extraction decreased in the later period. Conclusions: Our data provide important information on the complication and mode of delivery in Chinese women with severe preeclampsia in the past decades, which may be helpful for clinical management of severe preeclampsia in Chinese women.     

Maternal outcomes according to mode of delivery in women with severe preeclampsia: a cohort study

Objective: To determine the association between mode of delivery and maternal complications in patients with severe preeclampsia.

Methods: A prospective cohort study was conducted with 500 pregnant women with severe preeclampsia. The mode of delivery, vaginal or caesarean section, was considered the exposure, while the postpartum maternal complications and severe maternal morbidity were the outcomes. Logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the adjusted risk and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) of maternal morbidity.

Results: Labour was spontaneous in 22.0% and induced in 28.2%, while 49.8% had an elective caesarean section. Ninety-five (67.4%) of the patients in whom labour was induced delivered vaginally. Total Caesarean rate was 68.2%. The risk of severe maternal morbidity was significantly greater in patients submitted to Caesarean section (54.0% versus 32.7%) irrespective of the presence of labour. Factors that remained associated with severe maternal morbidity following multivariate analysis were a diagnosis of HELLP syndrome after delivery (OR?=?3.73; 95% CI: 1.55–9.88) and having a caesarean (OR?=?1.91; 95% CI: 1.52–4.57).

Conclusions: Caesareans are often performed in patients with severe preeclampsia and are associated with significant postpartum maternal morbidity. Induction of labour should be considered a feasible option in these patients.     

子宫内膜癌患者围手术期发生下肢深静脉血栓的影响因素

目的:探讨子宫内膜癌患者在围手术期发生下肢深静脉血栓的相关因素。方法:回顾性分析兰州大学第一医院妇产科2013年2月—2018年7月确诊为子宫内膜癌的516例患者,以其中41例发生下肢深静脉血栓患者为血栓组,以同期41例未发生下肢深静脉血栓的子宫内膜癌患者为对照组,对2组患者的一般情况、术前实验室检查、术中情况及术后临床病理情况进行比较。结果:按照单因素分析,高血压(P=0.012)、糖尿病(P=0.018)、体质量指数(BMI,P=0.028)、血小板水平大于300×109/L(P=0.018)、胆固醇(P=0.000)、D-二聚体(P=0.023)、手术时间(P=0.025)、术中出血量(P=0.029)、淋巴结转移(P=0.012)、肿瘤分化程度(P=0.018)及肿瘤分期(P=0.002)在围手术期子宫内膜癌患者血栓组与对照组中差异具有统计学意义。Logistic回归分析显示,患者患高血压、BMI>27 kg/m^2、血小板计数>300×10~9/L、手术时间增加、术中出血量增多、有淋巴结转移、肿瘤分化程度低、肿瘤FIGO分期晚是子宫内膜癌患者下肢深静脉血栓形成的高危因素。结论:子宫内膜癌患者伴随高血压、BMI>27 kg/m^2、血小板计数>300×10~9/L、手术时间增加、术中出血量增多、有淋巴结转移、肿瘤分化程度低及肿瘤FIGO分期晚时,需在围手术期对上述高危因素进行控制及采取其他方法预防下肢深静脉血栓形成。