Protective effect of quercetin, a natural flavonoid against neuronal damage after transient global cerebral ischemia

Previous studies have demonstrated that quercetin, a bioflavonoid shows the inhibitory effect against ischemia and reperfusion-induced injury in various tissues including neural tissue. Quercetin is also reported to have an inhibitory effect against matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Because MMPs are known to play a main role in the pathophysiology of brain ischemic insult, their mechanisms of possible protective effect of quercetin against brain ischemia remain to be clarified. In the present study, C57BL/6 mice were subjected to 20 min transient global brain ischemia. Cerebral blood flow was monitored by laser doppler flowmeter. Animals were sacrificed 72 h after ischemia. Quercetin (50 mg/kg, dissolved in saline) was intraperitoneally administered to mice at 30 min before and immediately after ischemia and from the second day, quercetin was then administered once daily until sacrifice. The present study was undertaken to test the effect of quercetin on neuronal damage after transient cerebral ischemia. Neuronal damages were remarkable in the medial portion of CA1 and CA2 areas after ischemic insult. In quercetin-treated mice, delayed neuronal damage was significantly decreased compared with vehicle-treated mice. Mice treated with quercetin showed attenuated brain MMP-9 activity. Gelatin gel zymography showed an induction of MMP-9 protein after ischemia. Quercetin significantly inhibited ischemia-induced elevation of MMP-9. In situ zymography showed elevations in gelatinase activities after brain ischemia. Quercetin also inhibited TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining in CA1 and CA2 areas. These results demonstrate that quercetin, a natural flavonoid reduces global ischemia-induced neuronal damage through inhibition of MMP-9 activity.     

沙土鼠短暂性脑缺血后海马迟发性神经元死亡机理的研究

本实验通过结扎沙土鼠双侧颈总动脉20分钟后再灌流2天或7天造成海马迟发性神经元死亡(DND)模型,检测背侧海马Ca~(2 )及脂质过氧化物含量的变化,并用海马CA_1区神经元密度作为指标,观察尼莫地平及超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)对海马DND的影响。结果:再灌流2天后背侧海马组织Ca~(2 )及MDA含量增加;尼莫地平及SOD均可改善海马CA_1区DND,使海马CA_1区神经元密度增加。本实验提示:Ca~(2 )及氧自由基导致的脂质过氧化物在短暂性脑缺血后海马DND的发生中起重要作用,钙拮抗剂及自由基清除剂对海马DND有保护作用。     

脑缺血海马CA1区5-HT变化的免疫组织化学研究

目的：观察脑缺血及缺血再灌流海马ＣＡ１区５－ＨＴ的变化，探讨脑缺血海马ＣＡ１区神经元损伤与５－ＨＴ变化的关系。方法：用免疫组织化学ＡＢＣ法及图像分析技术对沙土鼠脑缺血海马ＣＡ１区５－ＨＴ含量变化进行研究。结果：（１）脑缺血１０ｍｉｎ时，沙土鼠海马ＣＡ１区５－ＨＴ免疫反应阳必纤维的平均光密度值（ＯＤ）与对照组比较无显著性差异。而缺血３０ｍｉｎ时，ＯＤ值则下降，４ｈ时下降得更多，Ｐ〈０．０５。（２）脑     

大鼠脑缺血长期存活后海马可塑性的研究

本实验试图进一步探讨经长期存活后，脑缺血及不全脑缺血大鼠海马的可塑性变化，并验证它们之间的关系。脑缺血模型采用pulsinelli四血管结扎及其改变法，苔藓纤维显示采用Timm染色法．结果显示，大鼠脑缺血20muin、再存活90d后，海马CAI区细胞几乎全部丧失，CA2／CA3也出现严重的细胞消亡，CAI区明显萎缩，多数伴有苔藓纤维的侧枝抽芽，同期不全脑缺血大鼠海马未见或仅见局限于CAI的部分细胞丢失，齿状回或CA3区也伴有苔藓纤维抽芽．提示脑缺血经长期存活后引起的苔藓纤维的侧枝抽芽并不依赖于CAI区的细胞死亡．     

大鼠急性脑缺血模型中基质金属蛋白酶9和转化生长因子β1的表达及其组织来源分析

 目的:探讨大鼠急性缺血模型中基质金属蛋白酶9（matrix metalloproteinase 9,MMP-9）和转化生长因子β1（transforming growth factor β1,TGF-β1）的表达及其组织来源。方法:280~330 g雄性Wistar大鼠,使用线栓法建立急性大鼠脑缺血模型,并采用Zealonga 5 分制评分法评定模型建立的效果。分别取正常对照组、假处理组以及缺血后6 h、12 h、1 d、2 d、6 d和14 d组大鼠的大脑皮质和海马,采用定量 PCR检测脑组织中MMP-9和TGF-β1的表达。取对应时点各组大鼠大脑进行MMP-9和TGF-β1的原位组织化学染色。取对应时点各组大鼠血浆,以酶联免疫法（ELISA）检测MMP-9和TGF-β1的浓度变化。结果:定量PCR结果显示MMP-9 mRNA水平在急性缺血6 h即开始升高,到急性缺血2 d时最高。而TGF-β1 mRNA水平在急性缺血12 h开始升高,到急性缺血6 d时达到最高水平。与假处理组样本相比,缺血时间为12 h、1 d、2 d、6 d和14 d的样本有显著差异（P<0.05）。原位组织化学染色结果表明从急性脑缺血后1 d起,大脑的皮质和海马区域开始有MMP-9表达。急性脑缺血后2 d左右,大脑皮质的MMP-9染色最明显。在急性缺血2 d后皮质和海马区域开始能观察到TGF-β1表达,6 d时最明显。ELISA结果显示缺血后12 h,血浆中即可检测到MMP-9和TGF-β1的表达。与假处理组相比,缺血1 d时2种因子的表达差异显著（P<0.05）。结论: 大鼠急性脑缺血模型中其脑组织是急性脑缺血后MMP-9和TGF-β1的来源之一,该发现为进一步开展相关研究提供了线索。     

右甲吗喃对脑缺血的实验治疗研究

目的和方法：在沙土鼠通过夹闭双侧颈总动脉复制短暂性脑缺血神经元迟发性坏死,以海马ＣＡ１区神经元坏死为指标;在大鼠采用凝闭大脑中动脉复制局部脑缺血,以缺血区脑组织钠、水、钙含量及梗塞面积为指标;观察非竞争性、低亲和力兴奋性氨基酸拮抗剂右甲吗喃对抗脑缺血的作用。结果：右甲吗喃能提高沙土鼠脑缺血后海马ＣＡ１区神经元存活数;能降低大鼠大脑中动脉闭塞后缺血区水、钠及钙含量,缩小梗塞面积。结论：右甲吗喃能减轻脑缺血后神经元死亡（即凋亡）;并通过减轻脑水肿,缩小梗塞面积,改善大鼠局部脑缺血时缺血性脑损伤。     

Effect of pitavastatin against expression of S100beta protein in the gerbil hippocampus after transient cerebral ischaemia

AIM AND METHODS: We investigated the immunohistochemical alterations of S100beta-, S100-, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)- and isolectin B4-positive cells in the hippocampus after 5 min of transient cerebral ischaemia in gerbils. We also examined the effect of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitor pitavastatin against neuronal damage in the hippocampal CA1 sector after ischaemia. RESULTS: Severe neuronal damage was observed in the hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons from 5 days after ischaemia. GFAP-positive cells increased gradually in the hippocampus from 5 days after ischaemia. Five and 14 days after ischaemia, significant increases in the number of GFAP-positive cells and isolectin B4-positive cells were observed in the hippocampal CA1 and CA3 sector. Mild increases in the number of S100 and S100beta-positive cells were observed in the hippocampal CA1 sector from 1 h to 2 days after ischaemia. Thereafter, S100beta-positive cells increased in the hippocampal CA1 sector after ischaemia, whereas S100-positive cells decreased in this region. In our double-labelled immunostainings, S100 and S100beta immunoreactivity was found in GFAP-positive astrocytes, but not in isolectin B4-positive microglia. Pharmacological study showed that HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor, pitavastatin, can protect against the hippocampal CA1 neuronal damage after ischaemia. This drug also prevented increases in the number of GFAP-positive astrocytes, isolectin B4-positive microglia, S100-positive astrocytes and S100beta-positive astrocytes after ischaemia. CONCLUSION: The present study demonstrates that pitavastatin can decrease the neuronal damage of hippocampal CA1 sector after ischaemia. This beneficial effect may be, at least in part, mediated by inhibiting the expression of astrocytic activation in the hippocampus at the acute phase after ischaemia. Thus the modulation of astrocytic activation may offer a novel therapeutic strategy of ischaemic brain damage.     

Extended neuronal protection induced after sublethal ischemia adjacent to the area with delayed neuronal death

In the present study, we investigated whether neurons adjacent to an ischemic lesion acquire tolerance against subsequent ischemia or not. We initially used unilateral hemispheric ischemia for 3 min in gerbils to produce an ischemic lesion confined to the unilateral CA1 sector, and the presence of tolerance was examined in the adjacent CA3 sector through transient global ischemia by occlusion of both common carotid arteries. Attenuation of neuronal damage was clearly observed in neurons in the CA3 sector adjacent to the ischemic lesion in the CA1 sector. The phenomenon lasted for up to two weeks after the initial hemispheric ischemia, but was no longer present two months later. Reactive astrocytes as identified by the presence of glial fibrillary acidic protein were visible in the CA3 hippocampus four days and two weeks after hemispheric ischemia, but they were scarce two months later. Expression of heat shock protein 72 in the CA3 neurons was observed four days after hemispheric ischemia, but the reaction returned to the control level two weeks later.In conclusion, the present study showed that tolerance in the neurons adjacent to an ischemic lesion could be sustained at least for two weeks, and raised the possibility that reactive astrocytes might contribute to the extended tolerance in neurons.     

Reduction of hippocampal cell death and proteolytic responses in tissue plasminogen activator knockout mice after transient global cerebral ischemia

Knockout mice deficient in tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) are protected against hippocampal excitotoxicity. But it is unknown whether similar neuroprotection occurs after transient global cerebral ischemia, which is known to selectively affect the hippocampus. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that hippocampal cell death in tPA knockout mice would be reduced after transient global cerebral ischemia, and this neuroprotection would occur concomitantly with amelioration of both intra- and extracellular proteolytic cascades. Wild-type and tPA knockout mice were subjected to 20 min of transient bilateral occlusions of the common carotid arteries. Three days later, Nissl and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase biotin-dUTP nick end labeling staining demonstrated that hippocampal cell death was significantly reduced in tPA knockout brains compared with wild-type brains. Caspase-3 and the two major brain gelatinases (matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 and MMP-2) were assessed as representative measurements of intra- and extracellular proteolysis. Post-ischemic levels of caspase-3, MMP-9 and MMP-2 were similarly reduced in tPA knockouts compared with wild-type hippocampi. Taken together, these data suggest that endogenous tPA contributes to hippocampal injury after cerebral ischemia, and these pathophysiologic pathways may involve links to aberrant activation of caspases and MMPs.     

全脑暂时性缺血诱导原癌基因蛋白（FOS）在大鼠海马结构表达的特征

用免疫组化方法，对大鼠暂时性全脑缺血诱导的ｃ－ｆｏｓ原癌基因蛋白（Ｆｏｓ）在海马表达的分布，强度和时间过程等特征进行了观察。结果表明：缺血４０ｍｉｎ再循环后２ｈ，首先在海马齿伏回转折部的颗粒细胞和下托诱导出Ｆｏｓ表达，５－８ｈ达到高峰，８ｈ后锐减并逐步消失。ＣＡ４和ＣＡ３区的Ｆｏｓ表达在缺血再循环后３ｈ出现，５ｈ达到高峰，持续至２４ｈ消失。而在ＣＡ２和ＣＡ１区，Ｆｏｓ表达最弱，最晚（５ｈ才出现 ）     

Time course of caspase activation in selectively vulnerable brain areas following global cerebral ischemia due to cardiac arrest in rats

This study evaluated the time course of caspase activation in selectively vulnerable brain areas (hippocampus, nucleus reticularis thalami (NRT), cortex and striatum) following cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) after global cerebral ischemia due to cardiac arrest (CA) in rats. Caspases are well known to play a crucial role in the apoptotic cascade and inflammatory syndromes and, therefore, represent potential therapeutic postischemic targets. Given the delayed neurodegeneration following CA, it is highly important to study the time course of caspase activation in regard to therapeutic interventions after CA. To assess caspase activity, in situ staining was applied to detect general caspase activity at 6h, 3d and 7d and caspase-3 activity at 3d after return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). For detection of neuronal apoptosis, TUNEL staining was applied at 7d after ROSC. Distinct patterns of early caspase activation were observed at 6h and 3d in the NRT and striatum and of late activation at 7d in the hippocampal CA-1 sector. General caspase and caspase-3 activity correlated strongly at 3d after ROSC in all areas studied. At 7d, the TUNEL-positive neuron counts in the hippocampal CA-1 sector correlated strongly with caspase activation. In conclusion, general caspase and caspase-3 activity after 6 min of CA and the delayed occurrence of TUNEL-positive neurons strongly indicate that neuronal degeneration after CA is at least strongly associated with apoptosis. Therefore, postischemic antiapoptotic interventions might offer potential future therapeutic opportunities global cerebral ischemia due to CA.     

Significance of nerve growth factor content levels after transient forebrain ischemia in gerbils.

Involvement of nerve growth factor (NGF) in the pathogenesis of delayed neuronal death (DND) of CA1 neurons in the hippocampus has been suggested. We measured regional changes in the content of tissue NGF of the hippocampus in the Mongolian gerbil after 5 min forebrain ischemia. The NGF content was found to decrease significantly in the CA3 and dentate regions by 32% two days after ischemia. By contrast in the CA1 region, the level of NGF became significantly elevated by 50% two weeks after ischemia or later. The early reduction of NGF content in the afferent area projecting to the CA1 sector might be primarily linked to the pathogenesis of DND, whereas the delayed increase within the CA1 sector might be a secondary local response mainly of reactive astroglia.     

Role of tissue plasminogen activator/plasmin cascade in delayed neuronal death after transient forebrain ischemia

We studied the possible involvement of the tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA)/plasmin system on both delayed neuronal death in the hippocampus and the associated enhancement of locomotor activity in rats, after transient forebrain ischemia induced by a four-vessel occlusion (FVO). Seven days after FVO, locomotor activity was abnormally increased and, after 10 days, pyramidal cells were degraded in the CA1 region of the hippocampus. FVO increased the t-PA antigen level and its activity in the hippocampus, which peaked at 4 h. Both the enhanced locomotor activity and the degradation of pyramidal cells were significantly suppressed by intracerebroventricular injection of aprotinin, a plasmin inhibitor, at 4 h but not during FVO. These results suggest the importance of the t-PA/plasmin cascade during the early pathological stages of delayed neuronal death in the hippocampus following transient forebrain ischemia.     

Additive neuroprotective effect of Ketanserin and Ipsapirone on the hippocampal damage after transient forebrain ischemia in the Mongolian gerbil

Modulation of the serotonin (5HT) system via 5HT1A or 5HT2A receptors exerts a neuroprotective effect on delayed neuronal death after transient forebrain ischemia. We tested the hypothesis that a 5HT1A agonist (Ipsapirone) in combination with a 5HT2A receptor antagonist (Ketanserin) could improve the neuroprotection. Starting 15 min prior to transient forebrain ischemia in the gerbil model, different doses of Ipsapirone (1, 2, 3 mg) and Ketanserin (5 mg/kg) were applied intraperitoneally. Seven days after ischemia, surviving pyramidal cells of the CA1 sector of the hippocampus were counted. The significance of the differences between the means was assessed by an analysis of variance according to the Scheffé test. The hippocampal cell damage was analyzed by histological evaluation. Combined application of Ipsapirone and Ketanserin led to a dose-dependent additive effect with up to 83% preservation of hippocampal CA1 neurons (P<0.001). The results of the present study suggest that the combination of 5HT1A receptor agonists and 5HT2A receptor antagonists might be an effective tool for the treatment of cerebral ischemia.     

Ischemia-induced changes in PIP2 levels of gerbil hippocampus.

We carried out an immunohistochemical study to detect changes in phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) in gerbil hippocampus at various times after transient ischemia, using an anti-PIP2 antibody. About 24 h after transient ischemia for 5 min, an increase in the immunoreactivity was observed which was restricted to the area of CA1 pyramidal neurons. On the other hand, after less severe ischemia lasting 2 min, which did not lead to neuronal death, a decrease in PIP2 immunoreactivity was observed at about 48 h. The results indicate that levels of PIP2 following ischemia reflect dynamic changes in phosphatidylinositol (PI) turnover which may be related to neuronal degeneration.     

全脑缺血早期大鼠海马各区域小白蛋白免疫反应阳性中间神经元的不同时相变化的定量分析

近十几年来,缺血性脑损伤的细胞分子机制已成为神经科学界的重要研究内容之一。本实验用免疫组织化学定量分析方法对四管阻塞造成的全脑缺血20min后再灌流0～24h的大鼠海马小白蛋白中间神经元的变化进行了观察。结果显示：再灌流0～6h之间CA2、CA3区小白蛋白阳性中间神经元均出现一过性减少．到24h时恢复三缺血前水平：而CA1区小白蛋白阳性中间神经元的减少出现于再灌流12h后。此外齿状回颗粒层及门区小白蛋白阳性中间神经元变化不显著。本实验结果提示,短暂性全脑缺血早期海马各区域小白蛋白阳性神经元减少的不同时相特征．可能与海马各区域的不同缺血敏感性及不同缺血的病理学表现有关。     

Differential distribution of 68 Kd and 200 Kd neurofilament proteins in the gerbil hippocampus and their early distributional changes following transient forebrain ischemia

Summary The distribution of neurofilament (NF) proteins was studied immunohistochemically in the gerbil hippocampus with antibodies against NF68 (68 Kd molecular weight) and NF200 proteins, and changes in the distribution of NF proteins after transient ischemia were observed in order to investigate the temporal correlation between NF and delayed neuronal death. In the normal hippocampus, NF68-like immunoreactivity (NF68-LI) was densely distributed in nerve processes in CA2, CA3 and the hilus of the dentate gyrus but was less intense in CA1. In contrast, processes with NF200-LI appeared to be evenly distributed in CA1, CA2, CA3 and the dentate gyrus. Mongolian gerbils were subjected to transient ischemia for 5 min by bilateral carotid occlusion and subjected to immunohistochemistry 1, 2, 3 and 4 days after ischemia. Following transient ischemia, prior to neuronal cell death, the intensity of both NF68-LI and NF200-LI decreased in the whole hippocampal formation. This decrease was more obvious in the case of NF68-LI than NF200-LI. Four days after ischemia, when neuronal death of CA1 pyramidal cells had occurred, processes in CA1, particularly 68 Kd components, showed marked decreases in number and staining intensity, although processes in most layers of CA2, CA3 and the dentate gyrus appeared to be stained similarly to normal brain. Since NF68 protein is considered to be the major component of NF proteins and NF200 is an associated accessory protein, the current observations suggest that the poor distribution of NF68 in CA1 and the early loss of NF proteins may be closely related to selective vulnerability of CA1 pyramidal cells and delayed neuronal death.     

兴奋性氨基酸Ca~(2 )在短暂性脑缺血后海马DND发生机制中的作用

本实验用氨基酸自动分析技术测定脑缺血10分钟时背侧海马氨基酸含量;通过结扎沙土鼠双侧颈总动脉10分钟再灌流7天,造成海马迟发性神经元坏死(delayed neuronal death;DND)模型,以计数海马CA_1区神经元密度作为指标,观察谷氨酸钠和氯胺酮对海马DND的影响;检测背侧海马组织Ca~(2 )含量,观察氯胺酮对背侧海马Ca~(2 )含量的影响。结果表明短暂性脑缺血时谷氨酸和天门冬氨酸含量显著增加(P<0.05);谷氨酸钠能显著降低海马CA_1区神经元密度(P<0.01);氯胺酮能显著提高海马CA_1区神经元密度(P<0.01);再灌流2天后背侧海马组织Ca~(2 )增加(P<0.05),氯胺酮能阻止其增加(P>0.05)。本实验结果均直接或间接提示兴奋性氨基酸和Ca~(2 )在短暂性脑缺血后海马DND发生机制中起着重要作用,Ca~(2 )超载是神经元坏死的最后共同通路。     

Brain ischemia/reperfusion-induced expression of DP5 and its interaction with Bcl-2, thus freeing Bax from Bcl-2/Bax dimmers are mediated by c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway

Our previous studies and those of others have strongly suggested that c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathway plays a critical role in ischemic brain injury. But the downstream mechanism that accounts for the proapoptotic actions of JNK during cerebral ischemia/reperfusion still remains to be investigated in detail. DP5, one of the mammalian BH3-only proteins, was cloned as a neuronal apoptosis-inducing gene. In this study, we examined the changes of protein level of DP5 and its interaction with Bcl-2 family members in a rat model of global ischemia and reperfusion by immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting; furthermore, we investigated the effect of activated JNK on DP5-signaling pathway. We show here that DP5 was induced and interacted with Bcl-2 but not Bax in hippocampal CA1 6 h to 3 days after ischemia, while the interaction of Bcl-2 with Bax decreased. Systemic administration of SP600125, a small molecule JNK-specific inhibitor, diminished the induction of DP5 and its interaction with Bcl-2 after 2 days of ischemia. At the same time, SP600125 increased the interaction of Bax with Bcl-2 after 2 days of reperfusion. Thus, these results indicate that brain ischemia/reperfusion-induced activation of DP5 signaling pathway is mediated by JNK in postischemic rat hippocampal CA1.