Risk factors associated with altered fetal growth in patients with pregestational diabetes mellitus

Objective: To assess the risk factors for abnormal fetal growth in patients with pregestational diabetic mellitus (DM). Methods: A retrospective study was performed in 336 patients with pregestational DM. Small-for-gestational-age (SGA) and large-for-gestational-age (LGA) infants were defined as newborns with birth weights < 10th percentile and > 90th percentile, respectively. Logistic regression analysis was performed to identify risk factors for SGA and LGA. Results: Multivariate analysis of the patients with pregestational DM revealed a significant difference between patients who delivered SGA and appropriate-for-gestational-age (AGA) infants in terms of retinopathy (OR?=?5.73, 95%CI?=?1.39–23.59) and hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C) before delivery (OR?=?0.80, 95%CI?=?0.68 – 0.94, with a 0.1% increase in DCCT unit). Multivariate analysis revealed a significant difference between patients who delivered LGA and AGA infants in terms of primipara (OR?=?3.40, 95%CI?=?1.47–7.87) and HbA1C before delivery (OR?=?1.14, 95%CI?=?1.07–1.21, with a 0.1% increase in DCCT unit). Conclusions: HbA1C before delivery influenced both SGA and LGA infants in patients with pregestational DM. Tight glycemic control might be harmful to fetal growth in pregestational diabetic patients, especially when complicated with retinopathy.     

Role of fetal echocardiography in the evaluation of structure and function of fetal heart in diabetic pregnancies

Objective: To detect the structural and functional changes of fetal hearts in diabetic pregnancies by using Doppler echocardiography. Methods: This prospective study included 119 pregnant women divided into three groups. Group 1 included 47 pregnant patients with pre-existing diabetes mellitus (DM), group 2 included 40 patients with gestational diabetes and group 3 included 32 non-diabetic pregnant women. M-mode echocardiography was used to measure the thickness of the fetal ventricular walls and interventricular septum. The mitral and tricuspid early (E) and late (A) diastolic velocities and the ventricular shortening fraction were measured. Results: HbA1c % was significantly lower in gestational diabetes group compared with the pre-existing diabetes group. The interventricular septum was significantly thicker in the pre-existing diabetes group compared with other groups. Tricuspid and mitral E/A ratios were significantly lower in the pre-existing diabetes group compared with gestational diabetes and control groups. Moreover, there were no significant differences in the tricuspid and mitral E/A ratios between gestational diabetes group and the control group. The right and left ventricular shortening fractions were similar in the three groups. Conclusion: Fetuses of women with well-controlled gestational diabetes lack the diastolic dysfunction that is present in fetuses of women with pre-existing diabetes     

Sonographic study of the relationship between gestational diabetes mellitus and fetal activity

Objective: To evaluate the relationship between gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and fetal activity. Materials and methods: We prospectively studied 18 pregnant patients with GDM and 20 pregnant patients with normal glucose screening test. An ultrasound equipmentwas used to perform a 30?min transabdominal sonographic recording for each patient. Each ultrasound exam was recorded using a DVD recorder. Fetal activity was analyzed using duration and number of episodes of fetal breathing and body movements. The recordings were analyzed using a stopwatch in order to accurately evaluate each recording. The data was statistically analyzed using the parametric and non-parametric t-test. Results: The results of the study indicated that there was a significant correlation (p?=?0.007) between the duration of fetal breathing movement and GDM. Fetuses of mothers suffering from GDM had a significantly longer duration of fetal breathing movements compared with fetuses of non diabetic mothers. In addition, the total duration of fetal activity (time of fetal body movements plus fetal breathing movements) was significantly higher (p?=?0.005) in GDM compared with non GDM pregnancies. The difference in fetal body movements between GDM and normal pregnancies was not statistically significant. Conclusion: The results of this study support the hypothesis that GDM has a direct influence on fetal activity. The significance of this finding should be further evaluated.     

Effect of pregestational diabetes mellitus on first trimester placental characteristics: Three-dimensional placental volume and power Doppler indices

Objective

To investigate whether pregestational diabetes mellitus (DM) induces changes in vascular placental development detectable at first trimester.

Methods

This was a prospective case–control study in 69 women with pregestational DM and 94 controls undergoing first-trimester combined screening for aneuploidies. Maternal characteristics, fetal nuchal translucency thickness, maternal serum pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A) and free β human chorionic gonadotrophin (β-hCG) were evaluated. Three-dimensional ultrasound was used to measure placental volume and three dimensional power Doppler (3D-PD) placental vascular indices including: vascularization index (VI), flow index (FI) and vascularization flow index (VFI). Pregnancy-associated hypertensive complications (PAHC) and perinatal outcomes were analyzed. The total group of diabetic women and the group of diabetic women without PAHC were compared separately with the control group.

Results

3D-PD placental vascular indexes were significantly lower in women with DM than in controls (VI p = 0.007, FI p = 0.003 and VFI p = 0.04). These differences remained on excluding cases with PAHC in the DM group. No differences were found in placental volumes between the DM group and controls. Serum PAPP-A levels were also lower in diabetic women (p < 0.02) and negatively correlated with the degree of maternal metabolic control at first trimester.

Conclusions

Pregestational DM induces demonstrable alterations in first trimester placental development, with significantly reduced placental vascularization indices and PAPP-A values. This effect is independent of the later development of PAHC.     

饮食控制对妊娠糖尿病的治疗作用

目的 研究饮食控制对妊娠糖尿病（ＧＤＭ）的治疗作用。方法 分析１７８例妊娠合并糖尿病患者病例,收集经营养门诊及病房会诊指导后的ＧＤＭ患者的血糖值（包括空腹血糖和早餐后２小时血糖）和未经营养指导ＧＤＭ患者的血糖值。结果 营养指导后的ＧＤＭ患者的血糖水平明显低于非指导组,且营养指导后血糖水平低于指导前。结论 饮食控制对妊娠糖尿病具有治疗作用。     

Effect of dietary myo-inositol supplementation in pregnancy on the incidence of maternal gestational diabetes mellitus and fetal outcomes: a randomized controlled trial

Abstract

Objective: To test the hypothesis that dietary myo-inositol may improve insulin resistance and the development of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in women at high risk of this disorder.

Design: A prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled clinical trial, pilot study.

Participants: Non-obese singleton pregnant women with an elevated fasting glucose in the first or early second trimester were studied throughout pregnancy.

Intervention: Supplementation with myo-inositol or placebo during pregnancy.

Main outcome measure: Development of GDM on a 75?g oral glucose tolerance test at 24–28 weeks’ gestation. Secondary outcome measures were increased in BMI, need for maternal insulin therapy, macrosomia, polyhydramnios, neonatal birthweight and hypoglycemia.

Results: Thirty-six women were allocated to receive myo-inositol and 39 placebo. The incidence of GDM in mid-pregnancy was significantly reduced (p?=?0.001) in women randomized to receive myo-inositol compared to placebo (relative risk 0.127). Women randomized to receive myo-inositol also required less insulin therapy, delivered at a later gestational age, had significantly smaller babies with fewer episodes of neonatal hypoglycemia.

Conclusions: Myo-inositol supplementation in pregnancy reduced the incidence of GDM in women at high risk of this disorder. The reduction in incidence of GDM in the treatment arm was accompanied by improved outcomes.     

Postpartum assessment of the beta cell function and insulin resistance for Chinese women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) imparts a high risk of developing postpartum diabetes and is considered to be an early stage of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In this study, a 75-g oral glucose tolerance test was performed on 472 women with GDM at 6–8 weeks after delivery. The clinical and metabolic characteristics were compared between the patients with normal glucose tolerance (NGT) and abnormal glucose metabolism (AGM). These data were then compared between pre-diabetic and diabetic patients. A total of 37.7% of the women with GDM continued to have abnormal glucose levels after delivery. Compared with the women who reverted to normal, HOMA-IR was significantly higher in AGM. A multiple stepwise regression analysis revealed that age, the postpartum body mass index (BMI), low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), 2?h glucose load plasma glucose (2?h PG), triglycerides (TG), hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), 1?h glucose load plasma insulin (INS) level, and 2?h INS level were independent risk factors for the development of insulin resistance after delivery. This study has identified a high prevalence of AGM after GDM. Insulin resistance appears to be the major contributor. Any treatment to reduce the postpartum BMI and lipids level may be beneficial to decrease insulin resistance.     

Antenatal testing: diabetes mellitus

Diabetes complicating pregnancy is a problem for which fetal surveillance testing is considered to be the standard of care. In response to the unacceptable frequency of stillbirth in such pregnancies, fetal testing historically was first introduced to manage women whose pregnancies were complicated by diabetes. Essentially all forms of antepartum testing have been used to assess fetal well-being during the third trimester of pregnant diabetics. The contraction stress test became established as the "gold standard," yet other testing protocols have been used successfully. It is clear that control of diabetes throughout gestation, not just in the later stages, is more important for optimal outcome than is a specific form of fetal testing. Biweekly testing has become the standard and with well-controlled diabetics, allowing the gestation to continue until the onset of spontaneous labor, even when the gestation exceeds 40 weeks, is appropriate management with normal testing.     

Role of antioxidants in gestational diabetes mellitus and relation to fetal outcome: a randomized controlled trial

Objective: To examine the effect of antioxidant administration on the oxidative parameters in both blood and placental tissue and its relation to fetal outcome in women with GDM.

Patients and methods: Two-hundred pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) were randomized into 2 groups, Group1 received 1 gram L-ascorbic acid per day and Group2 received placebo.

Results: The use of antioxidants significantly lower the needed insulin dose for blood sugar control (25.6?±?20.3 versus 40.5?±?23.7, respectively). In placental tissue homogenates, glutathione (GSH) was 49.6?±?5.9 versus 62.34?±?4.99, malondialdahyde (MDA) was 165.7?±?9.2 versus 264.15 ±?12, superoxide dismutase (SOD) was 0.3?±?0.3 versus 0.054?±?0.16 while catalase (CAT) was 14.06?±?2.4 versus 15.52?±?3.97 and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) was 14?±?4.1 versus 26.3?±?4.26 in antioxidant group compared to the control group (p?<?0.001). In maternal blood, GSH was 1.5?±?0.3 versus 0.74?±?0.088, CAT was 380.7?±?11 versus 325.44?±?21.8, GPx was 52.3?±?8.7 versus 75.82?±?6.84 and SOD was 188?±?15.3 versus 98.56?±?11.05 in antioxidant group compared to control group (p <?0.001). In neonatal blood, the level of MDA and SOD showed a statistically significant difference between antioxidants and control groups (4?±?0.7 versus 6.6 7 ±0.66 and1 8 8?±?15.3 versus 98.5?±?11.05, respectively) (p?<?0.001). The neonatal blood sugar after 1 and 2?hours of delivery was more stable in antioxidant group (56.7?±?10.9 versus 39.7?±?11.1 and 58.5?±?10.8 versus 41.7?±?13.1, respectively) (p <0.05). The neonates NICU admission was lower in antioxidant group (5 versus 11) (p <0.05).

Conclusion: The use of antioxidants markedly reverses the oxidative stresses in women with GDM with marked improvement on neonatal outcome.     

Post-partum follow-up of women with gestational diabetes mellitus: effectiveness,determinants, and barriers

Background: Despite the recommendations for postpartum blood glucose monitoring post gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM); scientific evidence reveals that these recommendations may not be fully complied to. This study aimed to follow-up women up to 2 years post-delivery with pregnancies complicated by GDM and healthy controls to assess this fact.

Methods: Women with GDM (n?=?78) and normal glucose tolerant (n?=?89) delivered in 2014 were followed up for 2 years. They were informed and enquired via telephone about their blood glucose screening, physical activity, postpartum complications, and current weight status of mother and baby.

Results: Women with previous GDM were older and reported higher body weight 2 years post-delivery. At the 2?year follow-up, n?=?11 (14.1%) participants had developed diabetes, all with previous GDM. Both weight at birth (3.8?±?0.5?kg) and at 2-year (10.7?±?2.3?kg) for the babies born to GDM mothers was significantly higher than the NGT group babies (2.6?±?0.63 and 7.1?±?1.4?kg; p?Conclusions: The high incidence of T2DM in women with previous GDM is an alarming finding. Given this trend, systematic follow-up programs are needed to reduce obesity and diabetes risk.     

Measuring the rate of fetal urine production using three-dimensional ultrasound during normal pregnancy and pregnancy-associated diabetes

Abstract

Objective: To establish a nomogram of fetal urine production according to gestational age as a predictor for fetal well-being in normal and diabetic women.

Study design: Prospective observational study included 180 pregnant women classified into two groups: Group I (120 women) without any medical complications and Group II (60 women) with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). The fetal bladder is measured by the virtual organ computer-aided analysis VOCAL 3D ultrasound scanner.

Results: There was a significant positive correlation between gestational age and fetal urine production rate (UPR) (the mean UPR rate in normal pregnancy at 25, 30, 35, 40 weeks were 12.3, 14.38, 56.13 and 90.73?ml/h, respectively). There was no significant difference regarding UPR ml/h between women with normal pregnancy and those with controlled GDM (p?=?0.9). There was a statistically significant difference regarding UPR ml/h between women with normal pregnancy and those with uncontrolled GDM (p?=?0.012) and a statistically significant difference between women with controlled GDM and those with uncontrolled GDM (p?=?0.03).

Conclusion: Fetal UPR is considered to be more reliable as an assessment method for fetal well-being and shows significant increase in patients with uncontrolled gestational DM.     

化疗后糖尿病发病相关因素的分析

目的　探讨化疗对妇科恶性肿瘤患者糖尿病发生的影响。方法　采用回顾性分析方法对我院 5年来初治的妇科恶性肿瘤患者 2 5 6例及 16 0例同期因妇科良性肿瘤住院手术患者进行了随访 ,对其糖尿病发病因素进行总结分析。结果　化疗后糖尿病与合并心血管疾病、电解质紊乱、化疗及绝经相关 ;妇科恶性肿瘤术后化疗与单纯手术患者相比前者糖尿病发生显著增加 (P <0 0 0 1) ,以卵巢恶性肿瘤为主 ,随着化疗疗程增加患糖尿病人数逐渐增加。不同的化疗方案对糖尿病发生的影响也有差别 ,糖尿病发生与手术范围关系不大。结论　化疗可能诱发糖尿病 ,应引起重视。     

Cardiac function and tadalafil used for treating fetal growth restriction in pregnant women without cardiovascular disease

Background: The aim of the present study was to evaluate tadalafil for the treatment of fetal growth restriction (FGR) and the cardiac function in pregnant women without cardiovascular disease who used tadalafil for this reason.

Materials and methods: We examined nine pregnant women without cardiovascular disease who were using tadalafil to treat FGR. Maternal heart rate, systolic blood pressure (BP), and echocardiographic findings were assessed before and after tadalafil use.

Results: Diastolic BP was lower after compared to that before using tadalafil, but the difference was not significant. Echocardiographic findings were not significantly different before and after tadalafil use.

Conclusions: Tadalafil did not adversely affect pregnant women without cardiovascular disease and was considered acceptable for use since it did not affect the mother’s cardiac function.     

Decreased plasma adiponectin concentrations in women with gestational diabetes mellitus

OBJECTIVE: Adiponectin is an adipocyte-specific protein that has been found to be associated with insulin sensitivity and obesity. Because gestational diabetes mellitus is associated with obesity and decreased insulin sensitivity, we have analyzed plasma adiponectin levels in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. STUDY DESIGN: Twenty women with gestational diabetes mellitus and 21 unaffected women were included in the study. Plasma adiponectin levels were analyzed with the use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS: Women with gestational diabetes mellitus were significantly older (34.3 years vs 29.4 years; P < .001) than unaffected women. Adiponectin plasma levels were significantly lower in women with gestational diabetes mellitus when compared with women without gestational diabetes mellitus (5827 +/- 1988 ng/mL vs 8085 +/- 3816 ng/mL; P = .02). Adiponectin plasma levels were correlated negatively with plasma glucose concentrations of the oral glucose tolerance test ( r > -0.38; P < .04) and correlated positively with gestational age ( r = 0.36; P = .03). CONCLUSION: Our data show that decreased plasma adiponectin levels were found in women with gestational diabetes mellitus compared with unaffected women.     

妊娠糖尿病胰岛素治疗与围生儿预后

目的 探讨在妊娠糖尿病（GDM）治疗中胰岛素、饮食以及开始治疗时间早晚对围生儿预后的影响。方法 选择诊断为妊娠糖尿病者109例，其中采用饮食加胰岛素治疗22例，单纯饮食控制组低于应用胰岛素组，差异显著（P＜0.05）。围生儿结局显示：巨大儿发生率、红细胞增多症发生率三组为34周后饮食控制组＞34周前饮食控制组＞胰岛素治疗组。结论 GDM要早诊断、早治疗，尤其是应用胰岛素正规治疗对降低围生儿病率、巨大发生率以及控制孕妇血糖水平有重要意义。     

Differential expression of cord blood neurotrophins in gestational diabetes: the impact of fetal growth abnormalities

Objective: Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) may induce fetal macrosomia or growth restriction and is associated with later offspring neurodevelopmental disorders. We aimed to determine whether neurotrophins brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), nerve growth factor (NGF) and neurotrophin-4 (NT-4) are differentially expressed in cord blood samples at birth in large-for-gestational-age (LGA), intrauterine-growth-restricted (IUGR) and appropriate-for-gestational-age (AGA) offspring of diabetic mothers, as compared to AGA controls from non-diabetic mothers.

Methods: BDNF, NGF and NT-4 concentrations were prospectively determined in 80?cord blood samples from LGA (n?=?15), IUGR (n?=?12) and AGA (n?=?33) diabetic, as well as from AGA normal (controls, n?=?20) singleton full-term pregnancies.

Results: Fetal BDNF concentrations considerably decreased in GDM, as compared with normal pregnancies [(b?=??2.836, 95%CI ?5.067 to (?0.604), p?=?0.013)] and were higher in females (b?=?2.298, 95%CI 0.357–4.238, p?=?0.021). Cord blood NGF concentrations were lower in IUGR than AGA infants (p?=?0.038).

Conclusions: BDNF is down-regulated in the fetus exposed to GDM, independently of the fetal growth pattern, probably representing a candidate mechanism underlying the association between maternal diabetes and later psychopathology. IUGR fetuses born to diabetic mothers present with NGF deficiency, which may contribute to their long-term neurodevelopmental sequelae. Gender-dependent differences in fetal BDNF may partly explain the higher prevalence of adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes following brain insults in male infants.     

妊娠期糖尿病的筛查

目的 对妊娠期糖尿病(GDM)筛查的必要性、适宜时间、临界值及巨大儿的发生进行探讨。方法 回顾性分析1997年10月至1999年9月在北京协和医院行产前检查及分娩的1935例初产妇,孕1～4次。结果 妊娠期糖耐量低减(IGT)及GDM的发生率在孕24周以后无差异。OGT异常者分娩巨大儿较葡萄糖负荷试验(OGT)正常者高。50g糖筛查值在7.8～8.3mmol/L(140～149 mg/dl)的159例孕妇,只有2例诊为IGT,无一例为GDM。结论 在孕24周以后尽可能早地对孕妇进行50g糖筛查是必要的。对于OGT异常者应予以重视,对IGT及GDM者应积极控制血糖。对于高危人群必要时重复筛查。