Peripheral arterial disease: diagnosis and management

Peripheral arterial disease is a common but underdiagnosed and undertreated disorder with substantial morbidity and mortality. The pathophysiology of peripheral arterial disease and the risk factors for developing it are similar to those for atherosclerotic disease occurring at other sites. Peripheral arterial disease can be diagnosed accurately with simple, noninvasive, office-based tests that measure the severity of the disease and provide valuable prognostic information. Optimal medical therapy includes a supervised exercise program, tobacco cessation, and modification of treatable risk factors. Cilostazol can improve pain-free and peak walking distances in patients with intermittent claudication. As a general rule, patients with lifestyle-limiting claudication who do not respond to medical management or those with critical limb ischemia should be referred to a vascular specialist for consideration of revascularization.     

Hyperhomocysteinemia: A risk factor for arterial and venous thrombotic disease

Patients with the rare homozygous hereditary defects of homocysteine metabolism that cause severe hyperhomocysteinernia and homocystinuria are at high risk of arterial and venous thrombosis. This prompted studies of the relationship between moderate hyperhomocysteinemia and thrombotic risk in the general population. In the last 2 decades, retrospective case-control studies and prospective cohort studies have demonstrated moderate hyperhomocysteinemia to be a frequent and independent risk factor for premature vascular disease in the coronary, cerebral, and peripheral arteries. More recently, the association of moderate hyperhomocysteinemia with venous thrombosis was shown in patients with early-onset or recurrent disease and in the general population. Genetic and environmental factors act in concert to cause moderate hyperhomocysteinemia. Since inadequate intake of folic acid, vitamin B¹², or vitamin B⁶ are most frequently associated with hyperhomocysteinemia, dietary supplementation of these vitamins could have a tremendous impact on the epidemiology and natural history of arterial and venous thrombotic diseases.     

Peripheral arterial disease and risk of cardiac death in type 2 diabetes: the Fremantle Diabetes Study

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine the natural history of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) complicating type 2 diabetes, in particular the influence of PAD on the risk of cardiac death and the adequacy of PAD risk factor management. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: The Fremantle Diabetes Study (FDS) was a prospective community-based observational study of diabetic patients recruited between 1993 and 1996. The present sample comprised the 1,294 FDS type 2 diabetic patients and a subgroup of 531 of these who had valid data at baseline and five or more subsequent consecutive annual reviews. Assessments consisted of a range of clinical and biochemical variables including the ankle/brachial index (ABI). PAD was defined as an ABI < or =0.90 at two consecutive reviews or any PAD-related lower-extremity amputation. RESULTS: The prevalence of PAD at study entry was 13.6% and the incidence of new PAD was 3.7 per 100 patient-years. Both prevalent and incident PAD was strongly and independently associated with increasing age, systolic blood pressure, total serum cholesterol, and especially smoking. Risk factor management improved but remained suboptimal during follow-up. An ABI of < or =0.90 was independently associated with an increased risk of cardiac death of 67%. CONCLUSIONS: Measurement of the ABI is a simple means of identifying PAD in diabetic patients. PAD is common in diabetic patients and predicts cardiac death. These data further support the role of regular screening for PAD in diabetes so that intensive management of vascular risk factors can be pursued.     

Peripheral arterial disease: recognition and medical management

Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is common but has a variable presentation and is often unrecognized and undertreated. Patients with PAD have an increased risk of cardiovascular events and death. The ankle-brachial index is a quick, reliable diagnostic tool that also helps assess disease severity and prognosis. Treatment goals for PAD are to improve symptoms, enhance functional performance, prevent limb amputation, and reduce cardiovascular complications.     

腹膜透析患者外周动脉疾病及其相关危险因素分析

目的了解我国腹膜透析患者中外周动脉疾病（PAD）的发病率并分析其相关危险因素。方法选取腹膜透析中心150名临床情况稳定的持续不卧床腹膜透析（CAPD）患者为研究对象。测量踝臂指数（ABI）,ABI≤0．9诊断为PAD。收集所有患者的临床生化指标进行Pearson’相关及logistic回归分析以鉴别腹膜透析患者外周动脉疾病的危险因素。结果合并PAD与非PAD腹膜透析患者分组比较显示在糖尿病状态、心脑血管病史、舒张压、脉压、尿素氮、血清白蛋白、血糖、C-反应蛋白（CRP）方面均有显著差异（P〈0．05）。Logistic回归分析中显示血清白蛋白、CRP水平独立于其他危险因素而成为影响腹膜透析患者发生外周动脉疾病的主要因素。结论血清白蛋白、CRP水平是影响腹膜透析患者发生PAD的决定因素,临床上营养状况较差和（或）有炎症的腹膜透析患者要注意预防外周动脉疾病的发生和发展。     

Peripheral arterial disease of the lower extremity.

Peripheral arterial disease is becoming more prevalent due to the increasing age of the population. To better evaluate and care for patients with this disease, it is essential to understand its pathophysiology and etiology. Understanding the sequelae of events and treatments associated with peripheral arterial disease will help the nurse to provide a comprehensive, outcome-focused plan of care and education plan. Nurses are in a unique position to reduce the risks associated with lower extremity arterial disease.     

Managing adults with congenital heart disease in the catheterization laboratory: state of the art

There has been a rapid growth in interventional cardiology techniques to treat adults with congenital heart disease, mirroring the rise of interventional cardiology as a cardiology subspecialty and the increasing population of adults with congenital abnormalities. Starting with neonatal balloon atrial septostomy for transposition of the great arteries in the 1960s, improving and changing percutaneous interventional techniques have increasingly replaced surgery as a treatment option in several congenital heart diseases. Many pediatric cardiac patients now survive to adulthood following early surgery, perhaps making additional surgery higher risk, and percutaneous procedures offer an alternative approach, although with a different inherent set of risks and benefits in terms of morbidity and mortality. Adult congenital heart disease patients offer distinct challenges such as unusual anatomy and demands such as pregnancy and exercise tolerability not found in conventional pediatric or traditional adult interventional patients. This article reviews current indications for adult congenital heart disease intervention and best practice, detailing the patient spectrum commonly treated, devices used and emerging treatments.     

Managing adults with congenital heart disease in the catheterization laboratory: state of the art

There has been a rapid growth in interventional cardiology techniques to treat adults with congenital heart disease, mirroring the rise of interventional cardiology as a cardiology subspecialty and the increasing population of adults with congenital abnormalities. Starting with neonatal balloon atrial septostomy for transposition of the great arteries in the 1960s, improving and changing percutaneous interventional techniques have increasingly replaced surgery as a treatment option in several congenital heart diseases. Many pediatric cardiac patients now survive to adulthood following early surgery, perhaps making additional surgery higher risk, and percutaneous procedures offer an alternative approach, although with a different inherent set of risks and benefits in terms of morbidity and mortality. Adult congenital heart disease patients offer distinct challenges such as unusual anatomy and demands such as pregnancy and exercise tolerability not found in conventional pediatric or traditional adult interventional patients. This article reviews current indications for adult congenital heart disease intervention and best practice, detailing the patient spectrum commonly treated, devices used and emerging treatments.     

Peripheral arterial disease, diabetes, and mortality

OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were to provide estimates of 1) the risk of mortality for individuals with both diabetes and peripheral arterial disease (PAD) relative to that for individuals with either condition alone and 2) the association between PAD progression and mortality for individuals with diabetes, PAD, and both conditions. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: This longitudinal cohort study was conducted in Rochester, Minnesota. Local residents age 50-70 years with a prior diagnosis of PAD and/or diabetes were identified from the Mayo Clinic diagnostic registry and invited to a baseline examination (1977-1978). Those who met inclusion criteria were assessed for PAD progression at 2 and 4 years and followed for vital status through 31 December 1999. RESULTS: The numbers who met criteria for PAD, diabetes, and both conditions at baseline were 149, 238, and 186, respectively. Within each group, observed survival was less than expected (P <0.001). The adjusted risk of death for both conditions was 2.2 times that for PAD alone. Among the 449 who returned at 4 years, the risk of subsequent death was greater for those whose PAD had progressed; among individuals with diabetes alone at baseline, 100% (17 of 17) who met criteria for PAD progression were dead by 31 December 1999 compared with 62% (111 of 178) of those who had not met criteria (adjusted relative hazard 2.29 [95% CI 1.30-4.02], P=0.004). The increased mortality associated with PAD progression was significant only for individuals with diabetes (alone or with PAD). CONCLUSIONS: Diabetes is a risk factor for both PAD and PAD-associated mortality, emphasizing the critical need to detect and monitor PAD in diabetic patients.     

Peripheral arterial disease assessment: wall, perfusion, and spectroscopy

INTRODUCTION: Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is characterized by lower limb arterial obstruction due to atherosclerosis and is increasingly common. Presently used methods for diagnosis and follow-up as well as for assessment of novel therapies are limited. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Three distinct magnetic resonance examinations were developed. The first was high-resolution black-blood atherosclerotic plaque imaging of the superficial femoral artery using a surface coil and flow saturation. Second, first-pass contrast-enhanced dual-contrast perfusion imaging of the calf muscle was performed at peak exercise using a magnetic resonance (MR)-compatible pedal ergometer. Lastly, (31)P MR spectroscopy was also performed at peak exercise to measure phosphocreatine (PCr) recovery kinetics. RESULTS: Seventeen patients (age, 63 +/- 10 yrs) with mild to moderate PAD were studied with black-blood atherosclerotic plaque imaging. Mean atherosclerotic plaque volume measured was 7.27 +/- 3.73 cm(3). Eleven patients (age, 61 +/- 11 yrs) with mild to moderate symptomatic PAD and 22 normal control subjects were studied with first-pass contrast-enhanced perfusion imaging. Perfusion index was stepwise increased from patients to normal subjects with matched workload to normal subjects at maximal exercise. For PCr recovery kinetics, 20 patients with mild to moderate PAD and 14 controls were studied. The median recovery time constant of PCr was 34.7 seconds in the controls and 91.0 seconds in the PAD patients (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Three distinct MR examinations of different aspects of peripheral arterial disease have been developed and tested and shown to differentiate patients with mild to moderate PAD from normal controls. Taken together, these tests are potential quantitative end points for clinical trials of novel therapies in PAD.     

Coronary artery disease in women: different, often undertreated

Cardiovascular disease is responsible for more deaths in women each year than all other causes combined. Women have different cardiac presentations than men and are more likely to be underdiagnosed and undertreated for coronary artery disease. This article addresses gender-specific issues in prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of coronary artery disease.     

Peripheral arterial occlusive disease and its care in hemodialysis patients

The prevalence of peripheral arterial occlusive disease (PAOD) in hemodialysis patients is several times higher than among the general population, and is the main reason for amputations in this group. Patients with peripheral arterial occlusive disease face higher hospitalization and mortality rates associated with cardiovascular disease than non-PAOD patients. The ankle brachial index (ABI) is a widely used PAOD screening tool that may under-estimate PAOD prevalence in the hemodialysis population in the presence of extensive vascular calcification. Studies have demonstrated oxygen saturation in the upper and lower limbs and the "Edinburgh Claudication Questionnaire" as simple screening methods that, in combination with ABI, can increase screening test effectiveness. Early PAOD detection, risk factor modification, medical treatment, and exercise rehabilitation therapy can improve walking function and reduce mortality in PAOD patients.