Dual-source cardiac computed tomography: image quality and dose considerations

Computed tomography (CT) imaging of the heart, most prominently coronary CT angiography, is currently subject to intense interest and is increasingly incorporated into clinical decision-making. In spite of tremendous progress in CT technology over the past decade, the limited temporal resolution has remained one of the most severe problems, especially for cardiac imaging. The novel design concept of dual-source CT (DSCT) allows for an effective scan time of 83 ms independent of heart rate. While large trials are still missing, initial studies have shown improved image quality, especially for visualizing the coronary arteries and detecting coronary artery stenoses. Further investigations have shown that routine beta blockade to lower the heart rate is not necessary to reliably achieve diagnostic image quality. Other applications that may particularly benefit from increased temporal resolution are the analysis of ventricular function and of the cardiac valves. Dose issues which are of interest for cardiac CT in general are discussed in some detail, including a quantitative analysis of dose values and three-dimensional dose distributions. Various strategies to lower radiation exposure are available today, and DSCT offers specific potential for this.     

影像融合技术在冠心病中的临床应用进展

冠心病的诊断越来越倚重于多种影像学手段的联合。解剖与功能的融合影像实现了便捷的“一站式”检查，完善了现有的影像学诊察流程。影像融合技术如SPECT／冠状动脉造影、SPECT／CT，尤其是PET／CT的飞速发展，在冠心病的诊断、危险度分层、治疗方案的制定及预后评估等方面具有明显优于单一影像学检查的医学价值，更加完善的影像学资料及定量分析数据为临床提供了更多有用的信息。     

人工智能在心血管CT成像中的新进展

随着计算机技术的进步与影像设备性能的大幅提升,人工智能（AI）已成为医学研究的热点。目前,AI在心血管CT成像领域也已广泛应用,可以用于冠状动脉CT血管成像（CCTA）影像质量的优化、心血管组织自动分割、自动计算冠状动脉钙化积分（CACS）、实现冠状动脉狭窄的自动化识别与检测,此外还可以识别心肌缺血、预测心血管事件等。介绍常用的AI技术及其相关的术语,综述当前AI在心血管CT成像中的应用现状,并分析AI应用的局限和未来的展望。     

Adenosine-stress dynamic myocardial volume perfusion imaging with second generation dual-source computed tomography: Concepts and first experiences

Recent research suggests that multidetector-row CT may have potential as a standalone modality for integrative imaging of coronary heart disease, including the assessment of the myocardial blood supply. However, the technical prerequisites for volumetric, time-resolved imaging of the passage of a contrast medium bolus through the myocardium have only been met with latest generation wide-detector CT scanners. Second-generation dual-source CT enables performing electrocardiographic (ECG)–synchronized dynamic myocardial perfusion imaging by a dedicated “shuttle” mode. With this acquisition mode, image data can be acquired during contrast medium infusion at 2 alternating table positions with the table shuttling back and forth between the 2 positions covering a 73-mm anatomic volume. We applied this acquisition technique for detecting differences in perfusion patterns between healthy and diseased myocardium and for quantifying myocardial blood flow under adenosine stress in 3 patients with coronary heart disease. According to our initial experience, the addition of adenosine stress volumetric dynamic CT perfusion to a cardiac CT protocol comprising coronary artery calcium quantification, prospectively ECG-triggered coronary CT angiography, and delayed acquisition appears promising for the comprehensive assessment of coronary artery luminal integrity, cardiac function, perfusion, and viability with a single modality.     

State-of-the-art in CT hardware and scan modes for cardiovascular CT

Multidetector row computed tomography (CT) allows noninvasive anatomic and functional imaging of the heart, great vessels, and coronary arteries. In recent years, there have been several advances in CT hardware, which have expanded the clinical utility of CT for cardiovascular imaging; such advances are ongoing. This review article from the Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography Basic and Emerging Sciences and Technology Working Group summarizes the technical aspects of current state-of-the-art CT hardware and describes the scan modes this hardware supports for cardiovascular CT imaging.     

Computed tomography imaging of cardiac allograft vasculopathy

Cardiac allograft vasculopathy (CAV) is the main cause of morbidity and mortality beyond 1 year after heart transplantation. Ischemic symptoms are usually not present because of the denervated allograft and diffuse nature of the disease. Patients present with heart failure, ventricular arrhythmia, or sudden cardiac death as a result of advanced CAV. Therefore, clinical evaluation includes routine annual invasive coronary angiography (ICA) and transthoracic echocardiography to screen for CAV. Noninvasive imaging methods for the detection of CAV have not been widely adopted. Computed tomography (CT) permits detection of coronary stenoses and plaque in the nontransplant population. The strength of CT is its high negative predictive value. These attributes predispose CT to a role of a gatekeeper for further invasive testing in heart transplant recipients. We reviewed the available literature on CT evaluation of CAV. Technical challenges (eg, high heart rates, need for contrast and radiation, image quality) specific for patients who have received a heart transplant are emphasized, and solutions, including appropriate protocols and advances through the new CT technology, are summarized. We systematically analyze the results of studies that report the diagnostic performance of cardiac CT for the detection of coronary stenoses compared with ICA. Similar analysis is performed for the comparison between CT and intravascular ultrasound scanning for the detection of nonobstructive CAV. Finally, we suggest future directions in cardiac CT imaging research of CAV.     

低剂量冠状动脉CTA在高心率及心律失常病人中的研究现状

随着医学影像技术的不断发展,冠状动脉CT血管成像（CTA）已成为临床上筛选冠心病的重要检查方法,并广泛应用于临床。高心率以及心律失常以往一直被视为该项检查的瓶颈,随着多层螺旋CT的快速发展,两者不再成为冠状动脉CT检查的禁忌证,而且在降低辐射剂量的同时也能获得良好的影像质量。就冠状动脉CTA低剂量扫描在高心率及心律失常病人中的应用现状及最新进展予以综述。     

IgG4-related cardiovascular disease. The emerging role of cardiovascular imaging

Immunoglobulin 4-related disease (IgG4-related disease) is a systemic inflammatory disease that presents with increases of serum IgG4. It may affect various systems, including the cardiovascular (CV) system. Assessment of serum IgG4 levels and involved organ biopsy are necessary for diagnosis. IgG4-related disease is characterized by fibrosclerosis, lymphocytic infiltration and presence of IgG4-positive plasma cells. The disease usually responds to treatment with corticosteroids and/or immunosuppressive medication.CV involvement may manifest as cardiac pseudotumors, inflammatory periaortitis, coronary arteritis and/or pericarditis. IgG4-related cardiovascular disorders can severely affect patient prognosis. Various imaging techniques, including echocardiography, Computed Tomography (CT), 18FDG-PET, Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance (CMR) and cardiac catheterisation, have been successfully used for early disease detection and follow-up.Echocardiography and vascular ultrasound are the most commonly used non-invasive, non-radiating imaging techniques for the evaluation of IgG4-related CV disease. Periaortitis/periarteritis can be also assessed by CT, showing a soft tissue thickening around arteries. Coronary artery aneurysms can be easily diagnosed by coronary CT. In case of active periarterial or coronary artery inflammation, 18FDG-PET will show FDG uptake at the area of the lesion.CMR, due to its capability to perform function and tissue characterisation, can offer an integrated imaging of aorta, coronary arteries and the heart, assessment of disease acuity, extent of fibrosis and guide further treatment. However, multimodality imaging may be necessary for assessment of disease activity and fibrosis extent in those cases with multifocal CV involvement.     

Technological development and advances in single-photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography

Single-photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT/CT) has emerged during the past decade as a means of correlating anatomical information from CT with functional information from SPECT. The integration of SPECT and CT in a single imaging device facilitates anatomical localization of the radiopharmaceutical to differentiate physiological uptake from that associated with disease and patient-specific attenuation correction to improve the visual quality and quantitative accuracy of the SPECT image. The first clinically available SPECT/CT systems performed emission-transmission imaging using a dual-headed SPECT camera and a low-power x-ray CT subsystem. Newer SPECT/CT systems are available with high-power CT subsystems suitable for detailed anatomical diagnosis, including CT coronary angiography and coronary calcification that can be correlated with myocardial perfusion measurements. The high-performance CT capabilities also offer the potential to improve compensation of partial volume errors for more accurate quantitation of radionuclide measurement of myocardial blood flow and other physiological processes and for radiation dosimetry for radionuclide therapy. In addition, new SPECT technologies are being developed that significantly improve the detection efficiency and spatial resolution for radionuclide imaging of small organs including the heart, brain, and breast, and therefore may provide new capabilities for SPECT/CT imaging in these important clinical applications.     

What are the potential advantages and disadvantages of volumetric CT scanning?

After the introduction and dissemination of 64-slice multislice computed tomography systems, cardiovascular CT has arrived at a crossroad, and different philosophies lead down different paths of technologic development. Increased number of detector rows in the z-axis led to the introduction of dynamic, volumetric scanning of the heart and allows for whole-organ imaging. Dynamic, volumetric “whole-organ” scanning significantly reduces image acquisition time; “single-beat whole-heart imaging” results in improved image quality and reduced radiation exposure and reduced contrast dose. It eliminates helical and pitch artifacts and allows for simultaneous imaging of the base and apex of the heart. Beyond coronary arterial luminal imaging, such innovations open up the opportunity for myocardial perfusion and viability imaging and coronary arterial plaque imaging. Dual-source technology with 2 x-ray tubes placed at 90-degree angles provides heart rate-independent temporal resolution and has the potential for tissue characterization on the basis of different attenuation values at different energy levels. Refined detector technology allows for improved low-contrast resolution and may be beneficial for more detailed evaluation of coronary arterial plaque composition. The clinical benefit of each of these technologies will have to be evaluated in carefully designed clinical trials and in everyday clinical practice. Such combined experience will probably show the relative benefit of each of these philosophies in different patient populations and in different clinical scenarios.     

Reporting incidental coronary,aortic valve and cardiac calcification on non-gated thoracic computed tomography,a consensus statement from the BSCI/BSCCT and BSTI

Incidental coronary and cardiac calcification are frequent findings on non-gated thoracic CT. We recommend that the heart is reviewed on all CT scans where it is visualised. Coronary artery calcification is a marker of coronary artery disease and it is associated with an adverse prognosis on dedicated cardiac imaging and on non-gated thoracic CT performed for non-cardiac indications, both with and without contrast. We recommend that coronary artery calcification is reported on all non-gated thoracic CT using a simple patient-based score (none, mild, moderate, severe). Furthermore, we recommend that reports include recommendations for subsequent management, namely the assessment of modifiable cardiovascular risk factors and, if the patient has chest pain, assessment as per standard guidelines. In most cases, this will not necessitate additional investigations. Incidental aortic valve calcification may also be identified on non-gated thoracic CT and should be reported, along with ancillary findings such as aortic root dilation. Calcification may occur in other parts of the heart including mitral valve/annulus, pericardium and myocardium, but in many cases these are an incidental finding without clinical significance.     

Current and future status on cardiac computed tomography imaging for diagnosis and risk stratification

Computed tomography (CT) permits cross-sectional imaging with high spatial resolution and has, during the past years, undergone tremendous development mainly concerning the temporal resolution. By use of multidetector spiral technology, as well as electrocardiography-gated image acquisition and reconstruction techniques, 16- and 64-slice CT permits visualization of cardiac morphology and function. In this context, however, CT imaging does not play a major clinical role because other imaging methods (mainly echocardiography) usually provide all necessary information. Under certain conditions, multidetector CT also permits visualization of the coronary arteries. Detection of coronary calcification, as well as coronary CT angiography, can provide clinically useful information if applied to suitable patient groups. It is foreseeable that CT angiography will become part of the routine workup in some subsets of patients with suspected coronary artery disease, either alone or in combination with other imaging techniques. Among the limitations of cardiac CT are the requirement of a regular (and preferably low) heart rate, the associated x-ray exposure, and the need for an iodinated contrast agent for most applications. It is important to note that reliable and accurate results will require use of the most advanced CT scanner technology, optimal image quality, and sufficient experience in the acquisition and interpretation of cardiac CT data sets.     

平均心率、心率波动和心率变异性对双源CT冠状动脉影像质量影响的研究

目的：评价平均心率、心率波动和心率变异性对双源CT冠状动脉影像质量的影响。方法：100例患者进行了双源CT冠状动脉血管成像。原始数据经多期相重建优选出最佳收缩期和舒张期影像,以4分法评定系统进行影像质量评价。利用Pearson相关分析评价平均心率、心率波动和心率变异性对冠状动脉的影像质量的影响,对有相关性者行进一步分析。结果：100例患者,共纳入分析的血管为299支,296支血管可满足影像评价（99％）。平均心率、心率波动和心率变异性对总的冠状动脉影像质量没有影响,仅平均心率对舒张期冠状动脉影像质量有负影响（P〉0．05）,尤其对右冠状动脉的影响更明显,70bpm以上时影像质量即下降,80bpm以上时影像质量甚至难以满足评价。结论：平均心率、心率波动和心率变异性对双源cr冠状动脉总的影像质量没有影响,但平均心率对舒张期冠状动脉的影像质量有负影响,对右冠状动脉的影响更大,当心率大于80bpm时,利用舒张期的数据难以获得RCA满意的影像质量,应该利用最佳收缩期的数据进行影像重组。     

Herzbildgebung mit schneller, retrospektiv EKG-synchronisierter Mehrschichtspiral-CT

PURPOSE: In this paper a method for cardiac imaging with fast multi-slice CT and retrospectively ECG-gated spiral acquisition is presented. METHODS: A fast multi-slice CT system with 4 simultaneously acquired slices and 0.5 s rotation time is used (Siemens Somatom VolumeZoom). Continuous spiral data of the entire heart volume is acquired together with the patient's ECG and reconstructed with dedicated spiral algorithms providing 250 ms temporal resolution. Three-dimensional image data sets are built up from overlapping slices that are reconstructed in an arbitrary, user-defined phase of the heart cycle (e.g. diastolic phase). To evaluate the capability of the method for functional imaging complete three-dimensional image volumes are reconstructed from the same spiral data set in different phases of the heart cycle. RESULTS: A spiral data set of the entire heart volume may be acquired within a single breath-hold. Typical scan times for standard examinations with 3 mm slice width are 10-15 s, and for high-resolution CT angiographies of the coronary arteries with 1.25 mm slice width about 30-35 s. Motion-free reconstruction of the heart and coronary arteries with high spatial resolution is possible in the diastolic phase of the heart cycle. Multi-phase reconstructions from the same spiral scan data set are possible, however, motion artifacts in heart phases with fast cardiac motion may not be completely avoided. CONCLUSION: Fast multi-slice spiral CT with retrospectively ECG-gated spiral reconstruction is well suited for three-dimensional and functional imaging of the heart, especially for high-resolution imaging of calcified coronary plaques and CT-angiography of the coronary arteries.     

心房颤动患者的64层螺旋CT冠状动脉成像的初步临床研究

目的 探讨64层螺旋CT在心房颤动患者冠状动脉CT血管成像(CTA)中的应用价值.方法 分析31例心房颤动患者的冠状动脉CTA图像质量,利用血管分析软件判断血管有无狭窄并测量狭窄率,其中10例患者的冠状动脉CTA结果与冠状动脉造影(CAG)结果进行了对照分析.对于不同心率患者图像质量的比较分析采用多个独立样本(等级资料)的非参数秩和榆验.结果所有患者均采用绝对值时间法重组心脏容积数据.对31例患者中364段血管节段进行成像质量分析:心率为47～69次/min组图像质量为优、良、中和差的血管节段数分别为85、41、5和8个,心率为70～79次/min组分别为63、16、13和15个,心率为80～105次/min组分别为46、25、23和24个,3组间成像质量差异有统计学意义(H=22.08,P＜0.01).10例与CAG进行对照,共分析冠状动脉血管125段,CTA诊断血管狭窄程度≥50%的敏感度为85.0%(17/20),特异度为95.2%(100/105),阳性预测值为77.3%(17/22),阴性预测价值为97.1%(100/103).冠状动脉CTA低估了3段血管的病变,过度评价了5段血管.结论64层螺旋CT对心房颤动患者进行冠状动脉CTA检查具有一定的临床价值.     

双源CT双能量心肌血池成像的应用及研究进展

缺血性心脏病已经成为威胁人类健康的高发疾病,判断供血区心肌灌注情况以及冠脉是否有狭窄对预防、治疗缺血性心脏病有重要意义。双能量CT心肌灌注检查在临床上多用于静态评估心肌血池,用于冠心病或心肌梗死的检查。笔者将近年来双源CT双能量心肌血池成像的原理、扫描方法、图像采集及临床应用做一综述。     

Ⅳ型肺动脉闭锁合并室间隔缺损患儿临床、手术预后及CT特点(附7例报道)

目的 探讨Ⅳ型肺动脉闭锁合并室间隔缺损(PA/VSD)患儿的临床、手术预后及CT特点.方法 回顾性分析7例Ⅳ型PA/VSD患儿的临床及CT检查资料,记录Ⅳ型PA/VSD影像表现、侧支情况、供应肺段及合并其他畸形情况.结果 心脏CT三维重组图像可清晰显示Ⅳ型PA/VSD影像表现、侧支情况、侧支供应肺段,以及合并其他畸形....     

320排动态容积CT在冠心病筛查中的初步应用

目的探讨320排动态容积CT冠状动脉造影在冠状动脉粥样硬化性心脏病(冠心病)筛查中的应用。方法分析90例临床拟诊为冠心病患者的320排CT前瞻性心电门控全心容积扫描检查结果。对显示的冠状动脉主干及其主要分支进行分级评价,并对辐射剂量进行统计分析。结果本组90例,发现狭窄性病变70例,其中三支狭窄性病变10例,两支狭窄性病变25例,单支狭窄性病变35例;其中狭窄度≥50%35支(30.43%),<50%80支(69.57%)。90例冠状动脉成像质量1级80例(88.89%),2级9例(10%),3级1例(1.11%)。结论 320排CT冠状动脉成像速度快,图像质量高,辐射剂量低,是冠心病筛查的首选检查。     

256层螺旋CT前瞻性心电门控冠状动脉成像应用高心率患者临床分析

目的：探讨心率＜100bpm稳定窦性心率患者256层螺旋CT于收缩末期（40％～50％位相）应用前瞻性心电门控冠状动脉成像的可行性。方法回顾分析271例患者256层螺旋C T回顾性心电门控冠状动脉成像收缩末期（40％～50％位相）图像,所有病例按70bpm≤心率＜80bpm ,80bpm≤心率＜90bpm ,90bpm≤心率＜100bpm分成3组,对所有冠状动脉节段图像质量进行评分（4分法）,比较不同心率组间的图像质量。结果271例患者共重建3780个冠状动脉节段,可评估者3708个节段,三组冠状动脉可评价率分别为98．59％、97．79％、97．9％,组间两两比较差异均无统计学意义。结论心率＜100bpm稳定窦性心率患者256层螺旋CT冠状动脉成像于收缩末期（40％～50％位相）可获得稳定的满足诊断的图像,应用前瞻性心电门控技术成功把握大。     

双源CT冠状动脉血管成像检查不同心率对心电门控方法选择的影响

目的探讨不同心率选择不同的心电门控,以达到最佳的图像质量和最小的射线剂量。方法对100例不同心率临床怀疑冠心病或冠状动脉早期病变患者进行不同的心电门控扫描,用双源CT冠状动脉成像扫描图像行多平面重组(MPR)、最大密度投影(MIP)、容积再现技术(VRT)重组及Circulation软件分析。将图像质量分为3级,按冠状动脉分段标准评价各个节段的图像质量。结果根据不同心率采用不同的心电门控,尽可能使冠状动脉显示良好的重建方法,用前瞻性心电门控扫描的则直接重建,评价1 000个冠状动脉节段,其中图像质量为1级占73.3%(733/1 000),2级占14.2%(142/1 000),3级者占12.5%(125/1 000);图像质量为2级和3级的节段多由选择了不合适的心电门控方法所致。结论心率在70次以下用前瞻性心电门控图像质量较好,辐射剂量低;心率在70~100次之间用选择性回顾性心电门控(R-R间期70%～80%)方法图像质量较好,辐射剂量超过用前瞻性心电门控方法;心率超过100次最好用回顾性心电门控图像质量较好,但辐射剂量最大,但图像质量好,检查不容易失败。