Elekta Infinity直线加速器治疗床对放疗剂量的影响

目的:研究Elekta Infinity直线加速器治疗床在常用X射线能量下对放疗剂量的影响。方法:将圆柱体模体分别置于碳纤维主治疗床、延长板以及治疗床与延长板衔接处正中,旋转机架,分别让6和10 MV高能X射线穿过治疗床,利用指形电离室测量固体水中间的绝对剂量,得出不同角度下的剂量分布,并计算治疗床对X射线的衰减因子。结果:治疗床与延长板衔接处在120°和240°两个机架角处的剂量衰减因子在6和10 MV两种治疗模式下分别达到了36.02%和36.01%以及30.46%和30.63%,而当机架角为140°~220°时,衔接处与主治疗床的剂量衰减因子相近,在6与10 MV能量下的剂量衰减因子平均值及标准差分别为2.56%±0.49%和2.14%±0.39%以及2.55%±0.48%和1.95%±0.41%,机架角由180°增大或减小时两处的剂量衰减均呈上升趋势,二者均在120°和240°附近达到最大;6和10 MV两种能量下延长板在该角度区间的剂量衰减因子平均值及标准差分别为1.55%±0.24%和1.07%±0.25%,并在115°和245°附近达到最大值,剂量衰减因子分别为4.08%和3.97%以及3.20%和3.34%。结论:后斜野主体部分在主治疗床与衔接处对剂量的衰减低于3%,在延长板处对剂量的衰减小于2%,但在120°和240°附近以及115°和245°附近3处位置的剂量衰减会达到最大,需在计划系统中考虑床的影响;此外,主治疗床与延长板衔接处在120°和240°附近对剂量的衰减急剧增大,不适合作为治疗区域,在治疗病人时需注意避免将靶区移到该区域。     

Megavoltage x-ray skin dose variation with an angle using grid carbon fibre couch tops

It is well known that a skin dose from high-energy x-ray radiation varies with the angle of beam incidence or the presence of a radiotherapy linear accelerator couch top material. This note investigates changes produced to the skin dose from a Varian carbon fibre grid couch top at differing angles of incidence for 6 MV x-rays as is often the case clinically. Results have shown that the skin dose can easily be measured using an EBT Gafchromic film whereby the delivered skin dose can be quantified to a high level of spatial resolution, not easily achieved with other skin dose detectors. Results have shown a significant increase in the skin dose specifically at the point of a cross-sectional carbon fibre grid. Values in % of the skin dose increased from approximately 27% (an open area within a 10 cm x 10 cm field) up to 55% (same field size) at the centre of the carbon fibre mesh strip (0 degrees incidence). This is compared to 19% of the skin dose for an open field of a 10 cm x 10 cm beam without the couch material present. At larger angles similar effects occur with values changing from 52% to 75% (60 degrees , 10 cm x 10 cm) in the open area and under the grid, respectively. This produces a wave effect for the skin dose. The average skin dose magnitude increases with the angle of incidence of the beam, ranging from 37.5% to 66% from 0 degrees to 60 degrees (10 x 10 cm), respectively. The symmetric wave nature of the skin dose profile skews to deliver an increased dose on the posterior side of the carbon fibre grid as the angle of incidence increases. Simulated fractional dose delivery on a phantom has shown that over 30 fractions the wave nature of the delivered skin dose is minimized due to the random nature of most patient positioning on the treatment couch. However, some variations are still present as the ratio of the open to grid area is approximately 4:1 and the dose spread is not necessarily completely averaged during a typical fractionated radiotherapy treatment. As such, if the treatment type results in a more rigorously positioned patient on the treatment couch, the wave nature of skin dose delivery may need to be taken into account.     

A method of beam-couch intersection detection

At the time of treatment planning it would be useful to know whether part of the treatment beam passes through the patient/couch support assembly before it passes through the patient. In the previous work of Yorke, the range of gantry angles leading to beam-couch intersection was found as a function of couch translation for symmetric field sizes and for zero couch rotation. Yorke's method has been extended to include couch rotation, dual independent jaws, and multi-leaf collimator (MLC) field shapes. In addition, the new method is also applicable in the situation of the couch top located above the isocenter. For a clinically treatable, 20 x 20 cm field configuration in a linac, the range of gantry angles leading to beam-couch intersection are different by 6.7 degrees for a couch rotation angle of 25 degrees when compared to no couch rotation. The new method agrees with data within the setup and measurement uncertainties for a variety of field sizes including an oval shaped MLC field, and various couch locations, couch, and collimator rotation angles.     

床体因素对于放疗剂量的影响

目的：了解多种床体结构及其连接部分对于放射治疗剂量的衰减率,予以指导临床应用中不同机架角度配合使用相应治疗床,降低床体衰减对于射束的影响,提高放疗剂量的精确性。方法：测量参考剂量,有机玻璃体遮挡下剂量,有机玻璃体金属边框最厚部分剂量,网状碳纤维床体剂量,网状碳纤维床体边缘最厚部分剂量,延长板遮挡下剂量,延长板底面连接最厚部分剂量,相同条件下机架180°时金属支架与有机玻璃体遮挡下剂量。分别计算其衰减率。结果：有机玻璃体对于射线的衰减率最小为4.49%,有机玻璃体金属边框最厚部分衰减率最大值为36.2%,网状碳纤维床体衰减率最小值为0.74%,其边缘最厚部分碳纤维床体衰减率最小值为6.26%,延长板遮挡衰减率最小值为4.77%,延长板连接部分最高衰减率为63.78%,当机架180°时,金属支架与有机玻璃体共同遮挡所造成剂量衰减率最小值为31.21%。不同结构之间金属支架连接衰减率过大且不均匀,实际应用中须避开各部分之间连接区域,而在使用有机玻璃体床体、网状碳纤维床体以及延长板时也应根据其衰减率影响选择适合机架角度进行治疗。结论：临床应用中应选择适合床板配合治疗,考虑不同结构相互之间的衰减并在制定计划时避开相应区域,选择最佳治疗方案,以保证放疗方案的最优化。     

碳素纤维床CT值对头部肿瘤放疗计划剂量分布的影响

目的:定量分析碳素纤维床CT值对头部肿瘤放疗计划剂量分布的影响。方法:在Varian Eclipse 13.6计划系统中建立9种不同CT值的碳素纤维床和均匀圆柱水模体模型,并将圆柱水模体放置于碳素纤维床中间,在10 cm[×]10 cm射野下,采用6 MV X射线机架在0°~180°之间以10°为间隔行等中心照射,计算不同CT值的碳素纤维床的吸收剂量差异系数。选取头部肿瘤患者15例,以Eclipse计划系统提供的默认CT值碳素纤维床为基础,设计放疗计划,并将该计划保存为模板计划。随后将模板计划移植至其余8种不同CT值的碳素纤维床图像中,不进行通量优化,重新计算剂量分布。记录9种不同CT值碳素纤维床计划的D2%、D50%、D98%、CI、HI以及GI。结果:在-700 HU至-300 HU内,随着Panel Surface CT值的增加,吸收剂量差异系数逐渐减小;在-1 000 HU至-900 HU内,随着Panel Interior CT值的增加,吸收剂量差异系数逐渐增大。默认CT值的碳素纤维床计划与其他8种碳素纤维床计划的D2%、D50%、D98%,以及GI差异具有统计意义（P<0.05）,而HI则无统计学差异（P>0.05）。结论:物理师在设计放疗计划时,应根据实测治疗床的CT值构建碳素纤维床模型。     

有无均整器模式下臂架与准直器不同角度条件下的剂量学比较

目的:探讨臂架或准直器角度的改变对均整（FF）与非均整（FFF）两种模式的射线剂量的影响。方法:选用Versa HD直线加速器配备的6 MV/10 MV光子束FF/FFF模式4档能量在设定好九点位置的10 cm×10 cm标准射野内进行实验。首先,借助IMF等中心夹具将Mapcheck2固定于治疗机机头,并用Mapcheck2测量相同臂架与准直器角度条件下4种光子束输出的平面剂量值;其次,用Mapcheck2测量在相同臂架角度、不同准直器角度与相同准直器角度、不同臂架角度两种条件下4种光子束的中心轴剂量值;最后,固定准直器为0°,设立两组臂架对穿射野（0°与180°,90°与270°）。拆除Mapcheck2,采用固体水和FC65-G电离室建立一个测量模体来测量4种光子束在两组等中心对穿野的剂量。运用SPSS统计软件对该实验收集到的数据进行对比分析。结果:在相同臂架与准直器角度条件下,4种光子束辐照9个点的平面剂量之间均存在明显统计学差异（P6 MV FF =0.020, P6 MV FFF=0.017, P10 MV FF =0.030, P10 MV FFF=0.016）;而不同臂架角度或不同准直器角度条件下,4种能量光子束的中心轴点剂量值均无统计学差异。在0°与180°的对穿野,4种能量光子束的输出剂量存在统计学差异（P6 MV FF =0.001, P6 MV FFF=0.002, P10 MV FF =0.003, P10 MV FFF=0.001）,而在90°与270°的对穿野无统计学差异。结论:Versa HD直线加速器拥有优良的机械等中心性能。在实际工作时,臂架和准直器的旋转,均不影响光子束的中心轴剂量的准确输出。在FF模式下,射线能量越高,受治疗床影响越小;FFF模式射线由于射线质软,能量越高,更易受到治疗床的衰减作用,在实际中应引起重视。     

Image Display for Collision Avoidance of Radiation Therapy: Treatment Planning

Patient treatment in a medical linear accelerator is characterized by many angular and translational movements of the gantry and couch. The direction and orientation of each treatment beam is specified by a set of gantry, turntable, and collimator angles. It is possible that some selected treatment field configurations will result in gantry/couch or gantry/patient collisions that remain undetected during the treatment planning process. In this work, a digital camera has been used to record all the workable gantry/ patient set-up images, and a Windows programming language is used to edit and display these images on a personal computer for the treatment planner to screen the treatment plans. These graphical displays enable the planner to be aware of any potential collision hazards by an actual visualization of each selected gantry/turntable or gantry/patient angle configuration.     

Two-dimensional measurement of photon beam attenuation by the treatment couch and immobilization devices using an electronic portal imaging device

In our institution, an individualized dosimetric quality assurance protocol for intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) is being implemented. This protocol includes dosimetric measurements with a fluoroscopic electronic portal imaging device (EPID) for all IMRT fields while the patient is being irradiated. For some of the first patients enrolled in this protocol, significant beam attenuation by (carbon fiber) components of the treatment couch was observed. To study this beam attenuation in two-dimensional, EPID images were also acquired in absence of the patient, both with and without treatment couch and immobilization devices, as positioned during treatment. For treatments of head and neck cancer patients with a 6 MV photon beam, attenuation of up to 15% was detected. These findings led to the development of new tools and procedures for planning and treatment delivery to avoid underdosages in the tumor.     

Clearance assurance for stereotactic radiosurgery and radiotherapy

The nature of stereotactic radiotherapy (SRT)/radiosurgery (SRS) requires the use of oblique non-coplanar beams to avoid critical structures and maximize target coverage. These beams are delivered via a combination of gantry, collimator, and couch rotations. Such beam orientations could result in the gantry colliding with the patient or couch. The outcome can be patient injury, damaged equipment, and unrealized treatment. Our objective in this work was to create a treatment planning tool that utilizes each unique patient geometry to quantify clearance for stereotactic beams. Emphasis was placed on developing a general platform that can completely, yet easily, define any user system. Gantry components were described by providing component dimensions to software that generates thousands of surface points. Table components were described as a combination of boxes and measured surface points. During the treatment planning process isocenter coordinates, patient dimensions and beam orientation were specified. Gantry components were then transformed into the table reference frame. The shortest distance between the gantry and patient or couch was computed and compared to a safety margin. This clearance assurance algorithm was developed in response to the need to reduce patient setup time, and to increase the range of potentially useful beams. The software was verified by measuring minimum gantry-table distances at multiple beam orientations and comparing to calculations. Differences between calculated and measured clearances were on the order of 1 cm. The software enabled the safe delivery of noncoplanar oblique beams that are difficult to visualize. The software was used successfully to assure clearance for 50 patients (366 beams). This useful clinical tool became an integral part of the stereotactic quality assurance protocol at St Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center.     

对三维体数据“拍X光”的技术

本文介绍了一种对三维体数据“拍Ｘ刀”的技术，它是利用三角关系的推导得到的，在等中心放射治疗中，可照射弧的自动选择，平均照射深度的计算和射束视野的显示，都可以依靠这一技术实现。     

全脑全脊髓转床半野照射技术的临床应用

目的：介绍一种通过转床、半野进行全脑全脊髓照射的技术。方法：模拟定位时首先设颈胸脊髓野：机架角O°,小机头0°,床角0°,SSD=100cm,野长40cm,野宽4cm～5cm,同时在体膜上标记射野上界（B点）和下界（C点）,然后设全脑野：使用半束左右两野对穿照射,机架角90°或270°,小机头11.3°或348．7°,床角0°,SAD=100cm,Y1=0,X和Y2取包括颅骨外1cm,使射野X方向中心线在透视下与B点重合,最后设腰骶脊髓野：以C点为中心使用半束照射,机架角11.3°,小机头O°,床角90°,SSD=100cm,X2=0,Y和X1取包括腰骶直至S4。同时使用Kodak-Ec-film胶片、固体水模体以及MatriXX系统在加速器治疗机上模拟射野进行射野衔接点的几何和剂量验证,并观察12例使用该技术投照期间患者的放疗反应。结果：颈胸段脊髓野与全脑野衔接点以及颈胸段脊髓野与下位脊髓野衔接点处射野边界清晰锐利,未见射野间分离和重合现象,等剂量线基本平滑,未见明显的凹陷和凸出现象,12例患者都完成全脑全脊髓的照射计划,未见明显严重的放疗反应。结论：全脑全脊髓转床半野照射技术做到了射野间的无缝衔接,方法简便,值得临床推广应用。     

Variations in skin dose associated with linac bed material at 6 MV x-ray energy

Treatment with radiotherapy x-rays at 6 MV energy produces a build-up effect whereby a smaller dose is delivered to the patient's skin compared to the tumour dose. With anterior fields, no material is normally placed over the patient's skin, thus providing the maximum skin sparing possible with the beam configuration used. A posterior beam normally passes through the treatment couch top and increases the dose delivered to the patient's skin. Both the Mylar sheeting and the support ribbing material produce a significant increase in skin dose. Measurements at 6 MV have shown that the basal cell layer dose can be increased by up to 51% of maximum dose with a carbon fibre/Mylar couch and by 28% for a tennis string/Mylar couch when compared to anterior beams. These values are associated with the position of the carbon fibre or tennis string ribbing. Dermal layer doses are increased by up to 30 and 24% of maximum dose for carbon fibre and tennis string, respectively. These values include a combination of dose due to the support ribbing and the Mylar sheeting. Due to the variability in patient positioning on the couch top, these increases would be spread out over the skin surface producing an average increase per unit area at the basal layer of up to 32 and 20% of the maximum, respectively, for carbon fibre and tennis string couch tops and 21 and 12% at the dermal layer compared to dose at Dmax.     

CT metal artefact reduction of total knee prostheses using angled gantry multiplanar reformation

This study was designed to determine whether or not acquiring CT images of total knee prostheses by using an angled gantry and multiplanar reformation can reduce beam hardening artefact. A CT phantom was created with a total knee prosthesis suspended in gelatine with a known attenuation. CT data was acquired with a gantry angled at 0°, 5°, 10° and 15° in both craniocaudal oblique planes. Axial images where then reformatted from these datasets. Two independent observers selected regions of interest to measure the mean and standard deviation (SD) of attenuation in the gelatine for all reformatted axial images. Artefact was measured as SD of the background attenuation and areas under the curve of SD for each gantry angle acquisition were compared. Inter-observer reliability was excellent (ICC = 0.89, CI 0.875–0.908). The most accurate mean attenuation values for tissues around a TKR were obtained with a CT gantry using 10° to 15° anteroinferior to posterosuperior angulation. The smallest area under the curve for SD of attenuation for the whole prosthesis, and the femoral component in isolation, was obtained with a 5° gantry angle in the same direction. The smallest area under the curve for the tibial component in isolation occurred with a gantry angle of 15°. We conclude that acquiring CT data with a gantry angle can reduce metal artefact around a TKR. Optimal overall metal artefact reduction can be achieved with a small angle from anteroinferior to posterosuperior. Further selective artefact reduction around the tibial component can be achieved with larger angles.     

碳素纤维床对宫颈癌容积弧形旋转调强放射治疗计划的剂量影响

目的:研究碳素纤维床对宫颈癌容积弧形旋转调强放射治疗（VMAT）计划的剂量影响及其修正方法。 方法:使用CT电子密度模体校准大孔径CT的CT值,在Eclipse 10.0计划系统中建立相对电子密度-CT值曲线。将医用电子直线加速器上的碳素纤维床在CT下进行扫描,图像传输至Eclipse计划系统并测量碳素纤维床的CT值。以此CT值为基础在计划系统中建立碳素纤维床的模型,测量碳素纤维床在计划系统中和实际情况下对剂量的衰减系数并进行比较,两者测量条件保持一致。选取宫颈癌ⅠA、ⅡB期共5例患者,使用Eclipse计划系统设计无碳素纤维床计划。之后在患者定位图像上分别建立Thin、Medium和Thick这3种厚度的碳素纤维床模型,将无碳素纤维床治疗计划直接移植到3种不同厚度碳素纤维床图像上,治疗中心不变,机器条数不变,进行剂量计算。最终比较有和无碳素纤维床之间、3种不同厚度碳素纤维床之间计划靶区（PTV）与危及器官的剂量差异。 结果:Thin和Thick厚度碳素纤维床对实际测量和计划系统计算的剂量衰减系数相差均不超过±1%;不论是PTV还是危及器官,无碳素纤维床与3种不同厚度碳素纤维床的剂量参数结果比较均具有统计学意义（P<0.05）;不同厚度碳素纤维床对PTV和危及器官剂量评价的准确性有一定影响。 结论:加速器碳素纤维床对宫颈癌VMAT计划的剂量分布有一定影响;在进行VMAT治疗时,应准确建立碳素纤维床的模型参与剂量运算;并且根据靶区与碳素纤维床之间的位置关系选择添加相应厚度的碳素纤维床模型。     

Selection of beam angles for radiotherapy of skull base tumours using charged particles

The geometrical treatment configuration for skull base tumours is investigated using three different sources of information. First, an analysis of treatment angle combinations for 50 patients treated with conventional conformal radiation therapy is performed. In a second step, nine treatment plans for a hypothetical heavy ion gantry were prepared. Finally, cylindrical projections of the organs at risk are introduced as a tool to analyse the distribution of treatment angles as well as the treatment geometry for each patient. The results of the analysis for conventional therapy clearly show treatment angle combinations that are preferably used. These findings are also supported by the geometrical analysis using the cylindrical projections. The majority of treatment angles for heavy ions also seem to be confined to those regions. In one case, however, the sharp distal dose fall-off of the heavy ions allowed a beam direction outside these conventionally used regions. The advantages of a heavy ion gantry versus a fixed horizontal beam line are shown by comparison of treatment plans for both systems. Treatment angle combinations are suggested that should be accessible for any beam line design using either fixed beams or a gantry.     

Analysis of mechanical sources of patient alignment errors in radiation therapy

Certain radiation treatments, such as conformal and intensity modulated treatments, involve isocentric treatment fields delivered using multiple angles or continuous angulation of the gantry, collimator and table. At our institution, treatments involving three angles (gantry, collimator, and table) can, if uncorrected, exhibit misalignments of 2 mm or more on premarked field centers and borders on the patient surface during the initial setup on a linear accelerator (linac), even though the linac operates within allowable mechanical tolerances. This paper is an analysis of three principal mechanical sources of patient alignment errors observed on linacs: (i) errors in table and gantry angle, (ii) displacement of gantry rotational axis during gantry rotation, and (iii) displacement between collimator and table rotational axes. On patient surfaces, these small, systematic mechanical errors can each be expected to produce misalignments of up to 1.5 mm, increasing to over 2 mm with nearly horizontal fields delivered at nonzero table angles onto highly oblique patient surfaces. For the underlying target volumes, the mechanical errors can, in combination, be expected to produce target volume misalignments of up to 1 mm on newly installed linacs and 3 mm on older linacs. Thus, 1 mm appears to be a mechanical limit on the positional precision of radiation treatments.     

Dosimetry validation of treatment room shielding design

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) can lead to an increase in leakage radiation. The total number of monitor units (MUs) for IMRT is typically 2-5 times that for conventional treatments [the ratio of the two is used to derive the effective modulation scaling factor (MSFeff)]. Shielding calculations for IMRT can be done by applying the MSFeff to measured exposures under conservative conditions (standard beam setup 40 cm x 40 cm field, 45 degrees collimator angle) to account for the increased leakage. In this work, we verified this approach for two existing vaults housing a Siemens Primart 6 MV linac and a Varian 21Ex 10 MV linac. We measured the cumulative exposures at various locations around the vaults for typical IMRT cases and for the standard beam setup using the same MUs. For the standard beam setup, the IMRT gantry angles and eight equally spaced angles were used. Estimations of weekly exposures for IMRT were carried out using exposure rates measured under standard beam setup and the MSFeff averaged over 20 treatment cases. The accumulated exposures under realistic IMRT conditions were 30%-50% lower than the estimated values using equally spaced gantry angles except for two locations where the real IMRT leakage was higher than the estimated value by approximately 10%. Measurements using the same gantry angles yielded similar results. Our results indicate that it is adequate to use the MSFeff and previously measured exposures to estimate the leakage increase due to IMRT for an existing vault. Different approaches should be followed when considering primary or secondary barriers since the standard beam setup is overestimating the exposures behind primary barriers compared to IMRT. In such cases, a 10 cm x 10 cm field can be used for more accurate shielding evaluation.     

术中照射限光筒剂量学研究

术中照射是一项有价值的放疗技术，术中照射限光筒可以自行设计和制作，作者对术中照射限光筒制作和应用听剂量学问题进行了讨论和研究。限光筒的材料、尺寸和形状均可对剂量学毕结果产生影响，对每台加速器都应具体研究，术中照射限光筒制作后应仔细进行剂量测试，不同的ｘ线光阑设置会有不同的剂量输出特性，要选择最佳的ｘ线光阑开度以达到满意的剂量输出特性。即增加８０％剂量深度，产生较小的韧致辐射效应并得到较高的输出剂量     

应用提高分辨率的MatriXX检测等中心偏移的方法简介

目的:以检测等中心在X方向的偏移示例,介绍使用提高分辨率之后的MatriXX检测等中心偏移的方法。方法:在确保MLC的leaf bank关于collimator中心轴旋转对称,且MatriXX中心与等中心的偏差已知的基础上,将gantry和collimator的角度都设为0°,治疗床向X正方向每移动1 mm测量1次5 cm×5 cm照射野100 MU的剂量分布曲线,共7次移动治疗床,测量8组数据,然后将这8组数据叠加为一组复合数据,得到gantry和collimator角度为0°、5 cm×5 cm照射野100 MU时MatriXX在X方向分辨率为1 mm的剂量分布曲线。同样的方法测量得到将gantry角度设为180°时相对应的剂量分布曲线,然后使用OmniPro I’mRT软件对比分析这两个profile,得出等中心在X方向的偏移值。结果:等中心的偏移值为1.8 mm。结论:提高分辨率之后的MatriXX能够检测出等中心的偏移值;等中心的偏移会导致病人接受剂量出现偏差,而这种偏差可以通过调整Elekta Synergy MLC的leaf bank关于gantry旋转中心轴对称和计划设计中设置collimator与couch角度为0°来克服;等中心的偏差使得gantry角度在90°和270°附近照射野的平面剂量偏差非常大。因此,不建议计划设计中设置gantry角度在90°和270°附近的照射野,也不建议选用MatriXX或者其他平面探测器做照射野gantry角度集中在90°和270°附近的病人计划验证。