Increase of olfactory threshold in plating factory workers exposed to chromium in Korea

To disclose the effects of chromium (Cr) on olfactory function, olfactory threshold tests were conducted on 27 male plating workers (Cr workers) with signs and symptoms of olfactory irritation but without nasal septum perforation or ulcer and on 34 male control subjects in Korean plating factories. The Cr workers had been exposed to Cr fume for 0.9 to 18.2 (mean 7.9) years; their blood Cr concentrations (0.16-3.69, mean 1.29 microg/dl) were significantly higher than those of the 34 control subjects (0.04-1.95, mean 0.55 microg/dl). Scores on recognition thresholds among the Cr workers were significantly higher than those of the control subjects (p < 0.05) and related positively and significantly to the exposure periods of the 27 Cr workers (p < 0.05). Olfactory thresholds were not significantly different between the Cr workers with and without nasal signs or symptoms, except that the scores on the recognition threshold were significantly higher in those experiencing difficulty with smell (p < 0.05). It is suggested that olfactory threshold is affected by Cr without development of nasal septum perforation or ulceration.     

Nasal septum lesions and lung function in workers exposed to chromic acid in electroplating factories

The objective of this study was to compare workers from chromium, nickel-chromium, and zinc electroplating factories with regards to nasal septum lesions and lung function. Also investigated was the relationship between chromium levels in air and urine. A total of 189 workers from 11 electroplating factories (three chromium, six nickel-chromium, two zinc) were chosen from central Taiwan. All subjects were interviewed by constructed-questionnaire, given a nasal examination by a certified otolaryngologist and a lung function test. In the chromium factories 30.8% of the workers showed evidence of nasal septum perforations and 38.5% showed evidence of nasal septum ulcers. A Mantel extension test for trend showed that workers in the chromium factories were 31.7 times more likely to experience nasal ulcers than nickel-chromium and zinc factory workers. Those who worked in the electroplating tank area were 4.2 times more likely to experience ulcers and those with over 9 years' experience were 30.8 times more likely. A comparison of lung function adjusted for age, gender and smoking habit among workers showed that vital capacity (VC), forced vital capacity (FVC), and forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV₁) were all significantly decreased among chromium factory workers. Because the results showed that the workers' health is being severely damaged by the harmful environment of chromium electroplating factories, the authors wish to suggest improvements in the workplace are vitally needed to ensure the safety of the workers. Received: 8 August 1996 / Accepted: 7 March 1997     

Epidemiological study of mortality from cancer among chromium platers

Cancer mortality was studied among 265 male workers in 40 small plating factories (chromium, copper and nickel) where bicycle parts are plated. The study utilized record linkage with the Osaka Cancer Registry file between January 1, 1965 and December 31, 1979. The results showed that seven workers had died of cancer, and the Standardized Mortality Ratio (SMR) calculated for all cancers, stomach cancer and lung cancer were 1.13, 1.23 and 1.11, respectively, with no significant relationship found between the observed and expected values. The SMR for lung cancer among those workers with a high degree of skin ulceration and with perforation of the nasal septum was high, 11.22 and 5.13, respectively, although not statistically significant because of the small sample size in the study. The results suggest that lung cancer occurs in those subjected to a high degree of exposure to chromium.     

Effects of chromium compounds on the respiratory system. 5. Long term inhalation of chromic acid mist in electroplating by C57BL female mice and recapitulation of our experimental studies

Long term inhalation of CrO3 mist by C57BL mice The effects of the chromic acid mist used in electroplating on the respiratory system of C57BL mice (female; n = 43) were examined histopathologically after exposure for 12 months to the mist (1.81 mgCr/m3-120 min, twice a week). Among the 23 mice sacrificed at 12 months after the first exposure, three cases of perforation in the nasal septs, a case of proliferative change of the tracheal epithelium, nine cases of emphysema and four of adenomatous metaplasia of the lungs were observed on antopsy. Among the 20 mice which were sacrificed six months after the last exposure, the same changes as the 12-month exposure group were also observed in the nasal septum, trachea and lungs, but papillomas observed in the nasal epithelia of six mice and adenoma in the lung of a mouse were new findings not seen in the 12-month exposure group. These results suggest that, in view of the low incidence of spontaneous lung tumor in C57BL mice, inhalation of chromic acid mist in electroplating might be a risk factor of lung cancer. Additionally, the occurrence of papillomas in the nasal epithelium demonstrates the need of directing attention to the possible development of cancer of the upper respiratory tract in chromium electroplating workers. Recapitulation on our experimental studies Upon completion of our five reports on the effects of chromium compounds on the respiratory system, a recapitulation of our experimental studies was made and compared with the findings of a number of reports on chromium. It was experimentally and epidemiologically confirmed that hexavalent chromium compounds act as carcinogens and cause specific biological effects on the respiratory system. These characteristics of hexavalent compounds might be attributable to the strong oxidizing potency and/or high permeability through the cell membrane. Furthermore, hexavalent compounds might be entirely different in biological action from trivalent compounds which are chemically most stable.     

Effects of chromium compounds on the respiratory system. Part 4. Long-term inhalation of chromic acid mist in electroplating to ICR female mice

In order to determine the effect on the respiratory system of long-term inhalation of chromic acid in electroplating, histopathological examination was performed on mice (ICR, female, n = 50) exposed to chromic acid mist for 12 months (30 min/d, 2 d/wk), by using the authors' miniaturized chromium electroplating system. After 12 months' exposure, the mice were kept for 6 months without exposure. In the upper respiratory tract, round perforations were found in the nasal septum in 6 mice that were sacrificed or died after 10 months' exposure. The perforations were located near the point of the septum, the thinnest part of the nasal septum, and were of pin-hole sige. On the epithelium of the trachea and bronchus, loss of cilia, proliferation of goblet cells or basal cells, and squamous metaplasia were observed in almost all of the exposed mice. These changes appeared to be more advanced in mice exposed for a longer period. In the lung, development of benign adenoma was observed in one mouse in the 6- to 9-months' exposure group, in three in the 10- to 14-months' exposure group and in one in the group examined after 15 to 18 months. Furthermore, adenocarcinomas were found in two mice, one of which died at 17 months and the other was sacrificed 18 months after initiation of exposure. In conclusion, the finding that adenomas and adenocarcinomas were observed in mice exposed to chromic acid mist suggests the need to give careful attention to the possibility of respiratory cancers in chromium electroplating workers.     

南京市1941名铬作业工人健康调查报告

本文对南京市接触铬及其化合物的工人1941名进行健康普查,以电镀业工人最多,占74.55%,化工业次之,占9.58%。铬化合物对人体危害的主要表现在鼻部,可致鼻中隔糜烂、溃疡、穿孔。本组共检出鼻中隔糜烂204例、溃疡15例及穿孔11例,分别占10.51%、0.77%及0.57%。鼻部病变发生率与车间内空气铬浓度有明显关系,即超过国家标准的厂明显高于不超标的厂。鼻部病变发生率也有随工龄增长而增高的趋势。因此,改善劳动防护设备,定期健康检查,是降低发病的重要措施。     

电镀业职业性皮肤、鼻、咽部病变的调查——附上海两家电镀厂的调查和随访

本文报告1980年上海两家电镀厂261名职工职业性皮肤及鼻、咽部损害发病情况及1986年对其中104名随访结果。皮肤反应方面以接触皮炎最多见。通过随访以认识 一些发展规律，并藉皮肤斑试以探讨皮炎发生的因素和致敏特点。鼻、咽部经随访有增多趋势，而鼻中隔粘膜糜料往往导致鼻中隔穿孔，应予重视。结合实际提出初步防治建议。     

铬作业工人248名鼻部职业疾患现状调查

目的掌握乡镇工业电镀行业铬作业人员鼻部损害的职业病危害现状,为制定干预措施提供科学依据。方法调查27家电镀行业基本情况,对作业场所空气中铬浓度进行采样和检测。对铬作业工人的鼻部进行检查。结果镀铬岗位85.61%有槽边吸风装置,但使用率不高。F-53泡沫吸附剂用量不足,机械自动化镀铬线占36.0%,作业场所空气中铬浓度超标12.93%,最高为0.56mg/m3,超标10倍。对248名工人鼻部进行检查,鼻中隔黏膜糜烂6例,鼻中隔软骨部穿孔6例,检出率4.84%。结论乡镇电镀行业铬作业职业病危害较严重,已直接损害工人健康,应引起地方政府部门的高度关注,并积极采取综合整治措施,建立长效管理机制,控制铬职业病危害的发生。     

Dermal exposure to chromium in electroplating

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to measure the dermal and respiratory exposure levels of hexavalent chromium during electroplating work. METHODS: Potential dermal exposure of the body was measured with patch samples and actual exposure of hands with hand-wash samples. For comparison, personal air samples were also collected. RESULTS: The exposure varied widely between workers. The range of body and hand exposure to the electroplating solution was 0.17-28.1 mg/h and 0.04-6.37 mg/h, respectively. Hands and lower limbs were the most contaminated body parts. CONCLUSIONS: The results of breathing zone samples and dermal exposure did not correlate with each other. In manual electroplating processes, dermal exposure was higher than in semi-automatic and automatic processes. The amount of hexavalent chromium the workers were exposed to is probably high enough to cause a risk of skin sensitization.     

Nasal septum perforation of welders

During the periodic physical checkups in 1997-2000, the authors have found eleven cases of nasal septum perforation among 2,869 welders in Ulsan, Korea. They have not suffered from diseases and conditions that could cause septum perforation such as tuberculosis, syphilis, and long-term use of topical corticosteroids. And also they did not have trauma history and surgical experiences on their nasal septum. To investigate the cause of septum perforation we reviewed the past history of pre-employment, the results of annual working environment survey and the material safety data sheets of welding rods and steels with which they have dealt. We also analyzed the concentration of several metals of welding fume and the concentration of blood and urinary chromium. In the result, we assumed that the nasal septum perforation of welders was due to chronic exposure to low-level hexavalent chromium.     

发铬作为接铬工人生物监测指标的探讨

本文通过铬盐生产工人发铬含量与空气铬、尿铬、性别、工龄之间的比较,初步探讨发铬作为铬盐生产工人生物监测指标的意义。结果表明铬盐工人发铬与正常对照组之间有非常显著差异(P<0.01);发(?)与空气铬浓度呈低度正相关(r=0.285);发铬在男女接触工人之间无统计学差异,但女工偏低;发铬与尿铬、工龄无相关关系。     

工作场所空气中铬测定方法的研究现状

铬在电镀作业中接触广泛,如防护不当,作业工人可发生铬鼻病。调查发现,在低浓度铬环境中的作业工人,仍有可能发生鼻黏膜红肿、糜烂、萎缩的健康损害。因此,探讨工作场所空气中铬的现场采样及实验室检测方法,以便为低浓度铬环境中的作业工人的身体健康提供更加充分的基础资料。     

Clinical findings of irritation among chromium chemical production workers

BACKGROUND: Several reports of workers in chromate production and chromeplating have indicated that exposure to hexavalent chromium is associated with skin and nasal irritation. METHODS: A cohort of 2, 357 workers first employed between 1950 and 1974 at a chromate production plant was identified. Clinical findings of irritation were identified by a physician as a result of routine examinations or visits to the medical clinic by members of the cohort. Percentages of the cohort with various clinical findings, the time from hire to occurrence of the first finding, and the mean and median annual hexavalent chromium (measured as CrO(3)) concentration for the job title where the clinical finding first occurred were determined. A proportional hazards model was used to evaluate the relationship between hexavalent chromium exposure and first occurrence of each of the clinical findings. RESULTS: Nasal irritation and nasal ulceration were the most common clinical findings reported, occurring in more than 60% of the cohort. The average time to first occurrence of these findings was less than 3 months, whereas the time to first occurrence of the other findings ranged from 10 to 22 months. Median exposure to hexavalent chromium at the time of occurrence for most of the findings was about 20 microg/m(3). The proportional hazards model indicated that ulcerated nasal septum, irritated skin, and perforated eardrum were significantly associated with ambient hexavalent chromium exposure; all clinical findings with the exception of conjunctivitis and irritated skin were associated with the calendar year of hire, with the risk being lower as the calendar year of hire became more recent. Annual average ambient hexavalent chromium concentrations generally dropped in the plant over the period of the study. CONCLUSIONS: Workers in the chromate production plant in this study experienced a variety of nasal and skin irritations. Irritated and ulcerated nasal septa, in particular, were quite common clinical findings, occurring in over 60% of the cohort, and they occurred in relatively short periods of time-less than 3 months from date of hire. Annual average concentrations of chromium may not be a good predictor of clinical findings of irritation. Am. J. Ind. Med. 38:127-131, 2000. Published 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Nose disease caused by occupational exposure to chromium in the electroplating industry: cytomorphological aspects

Twenty-six workers were studied (9 chrome-platers exposed to chromium dioxide and 17 workers exposed to metallic chromium dust) in order to investigate the macroscopic and cytological changes of the nasal mucosa due to exposure to water-soluble hexavalent chromium or to metallic chromium dust in the electroplating industry and the role of different valencies in the onset of nasal disease. Experimental and epidemiological data have shown that hexavalent chromium, which has strong oxidative power, induces more noticeable toxic effects on tissues and mucous membranes than other compounds. The correlation between the degree of local toxic effects and the chemical state of chromium was demonstrated in both the macro- and the microscopic investigations and in particular in the cytological examinations: cases of atypia were found only in workers exposed to hexavalent chromium. Evidence of atypia raises the question of whether hexavalent chromium may act as a carcinogenic agent on the rhinosinusal mucosa. For this reason, the introduction of cytological nasal examination in health surveillance programmes for this category of workers acquires considerable importance. Sample collection from the nasal mucosa by brushing is the method of choice since it is simple, non-invasive and gives good diagnostic results.     

2009年度常熟市电镀行业职业病危害分析及防治对策

目的对电镀作业工人进行健康监护,保护电镀作业工人身体健康。方法根据职业健康监护技术规范的要求对电镀作业工人802人（接触性）进行症状询问、体格检查、实验室和其他检查,以同时期健康检查756人作为对照组。结果 802中铬作业工人中出现自觉症状、鼻部损害、血液系统改变等职业病损害相关症状者为70例,占有8.7%,其中鼻损伤发生率为3.99%（32/802）,对照组为1.19%（9/756）,2组差异有统计学意义（χ2=11.90,P〈0.001）。     

Spirometric alterations in workers in the chromium electroplating industry

Summary The spirometric values (VC, FeV₁, FEF_25–75%) were studied in 44 workers of 17 chromium electroplating plants. Urinary chromium was also measured. The dynamic values of spirometry are lower amongst the workers who have higher urinary chromium. The part that can be attributed to tobacco smoking is much lower than that of chromium. The workers dealing with chromium electroplating in poor conditions seem to be subjects at risk in developing obstructive respiratory syndrome. The hazard seems to be especially high in plants dealing with hard chromium plating.     

Risk of lung cancer among former chromium smelter workers

Hexavalent chromium is a known carcinogen. Previous epidemiologic studies in the 1950s of United States workers from seven facilities producing chromium compounds from chromite ore have reported a markedly increased risk for dying from lung cancer. As part of a high risk notification project of workers from four of these facilities, a mortality study was performed. The cohort was assembled in 1990–1991 from the Social Security records of four former chromate producing facilities in northern New Jersey. The study subjects were known to have worked at these facilities some time between 1937 and 1971. Proportionate mortality and proportionate cancer mortality ratios (PCMR) were calculated. The overall risk for lung cancer was a PCMR of 1.51 (confidence limits [CL] 1.29–1.74) for white men and 1.34 (CL 1.00–1.75) for black men. These risks increased with increasing duration of employment and latency since time of first employment. The PCMR for greater than 20 years duration of work and more than 20 years since first exposure was 1.94 (CL 1.15–3.06) for white men and 3.08 (CL 1.13–6.71) for black men. The risk for lung cancer for white men remains elevated more than 20 years after exposure has ceased (PCMR, 1.29; CL 1.03–1.60). The PCMR for nasal cavity/sinus cancer was also found to be a significantly increased, 5.18 (CL 2.37–11.30). A cluster of bladder cancer was seen among black workers from one facility, (PCMR, 3.30; CL 1.42–6.51). Despite the cessation of exposure, former chromium workers remain at significantly increased risk of lung cancer. Although there have been case reports of nasal cavity/sinus cancer in association with chromium exposure, this is the first epidemiologic study to report a significant increase in these cancers. Limitations in this study include lack of exposure data and lack of information on smoking habits. The lack of increase in other smoking-related diseases besides lung cancer indicates that the increase in lung cancer cannot be attributed to cigarette smoking. The ongoing elevated risk of lung cancer after cessation of exposure emphasizes the need for developing early detection tests for lung cancer. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Urinary excretion of chromium and nickel among electroplaters and pigment industry workers

Summary The urinary excretion of chromium and nickel among workers of some small electroplating-polishing and paint-pigment industries was investigated to ascertain the occupational exposures to the two metals, used extensively in these trades. The workers were also clinically examined for any symptoms of metal poisoning. The excretion of chromium was very high in all the exposed subjects and that of nickel considerably high in some of the workers, compared to unexposed subjects. However, there was no definite co-relation between excretion of metals and the duration of the exposures, though most significant metal excretions were observed at the longest period of occupational exposure.     

应用美国国家环境保护署吸入风险模型评估职业危害的研究

目的：研究美国国家环境保护署（USEPA）吸入风险评估模型在造纸、化工和电镀等行业应用的适用性和可行性。方法以造纸、化工和电镀行业的11家企业为研究对象,应用该模型对各企业重点岗位进行风险评估。计算非致癌效应风险值和致癌风险值,判定化学物所致职业健康风险水平,并与职业接触限值、职业病危害作业分级和文献比较。结果造纸行业接触硫化氢导致鼻嗅黏膜病变的危害商数为36.3;化工行业有机硅合成企业一氯甲烷合成岗位接触氯化氢所致鼻咽、气管黏膜增生的危害商数为8.2,氯甲烷所致小脑病变危害商数为1.4;农药厂离心、投料岗位接触氨所致肺功能下降或呼吸道疾病症状加重的危害商数分别为1.5和1.2;化学溶剂厂灌装岗位接触二甲苯所致运动协调障碍的危害商数为2.4;电镀行业接触氯化氢所致鼻咽、气管黏膜增生的危害商数为2.3～75.3,接触铬酸盐或重铬酸盐所致鼻部损害的危害商数为192.5～25675。造纸、化工和电镀行业各岗位危害商数均大于1,均判定为高风险水平。电镀行业镀铬岗位接触铬酸盐或重铬酸盐所致肺癌的致癌性风险值为0.001～0.1647,大于10-4,判定为高风险水平。如按中国职业卫生标准评估,仅有1家电镀企业镀铬岗位检出浓度超标,其风险识别效力不及USEPA模型。结论该模型适用于造纸、化工和电镀行业职业病危害风险评估。与中国职业卫生标准相比,它更易识别危险作业岗位。     

职业接触可溶性铬盐个体暴露与尿铬水平的相关性研究

目的通过对职业接触可溶性铬盐个体暴露与尿铬水平的相关性研究,探讨并提出可溶性铬盐职业接触者尿铬生物限值,为铬盐职业接触人群健康监护和危险性评价提供依据。方法通过流行病学横断面调查,以不同剂量铬盐接触的83名劳动者为研究对象,10名非铬盐接触的农民为对照,两组人群在年龄、性别和吸烟状况等方面相匹配,进行了个体铬盐暴露与班末尿铬含量的研究,并对二者之间的关系进行了分析。同时复习了对可溶性铬盐职业接触者尿铬生物限值的相关文献。结果对照组8 h个体空气铬连续监测浓度在0.00~0.08μg/m3之间,尿铬浓度经肌酐校正后在0.40~1.02μg/g肌酐之间。铬盐接触劳动者8 h连续空气个体监测浓度在0.10~287.00μg/m3之间,尿铬浓度范围在1.14~79.07μg/g肌酐。职业接触铬盐工人班末的尿铬浓度随个体铬盐暴露水平的增加而增加,两者具有相关性。其回归方程为尿铬浓度(μg/g肌酐)=4.16+236.86×空气中铬的浓度(mg/m3),尿铬与空气铬的浓度相关系数r=0.976。通过文献复习,美国政府职业卫生工作者协会(ACG IH)推荐的职业接触可溶性铬盐在与我国相同的时间加权平均阈限值0.05mg/m3下,尿铬生物接触限值为65.1μmol/mol肌酐(30μg/g肌酐)。结论职业接触可溶性铬盐工人班末的尿铬含量可以用来评价作业场所铬盐的接触情况。依据美国ACG IH推荐的生物接触限值以及本调查结果,作者提出连续工作5个工作日的工作周末/班末尿铬的推荐值为65.1μmol/mol肌酐(30μg/g肌酐)。