Missing elements revisited: information engineering for managing quality of care for patients with diabetes

Introduction

Advances in information technology offer new avenues for assembling data about diet and care regimens of diabetes patients “in the field.” This creates a challenge for their doctors and the diabetes care community—how to organize and use new data to produce better long-term outcomes for diabetes patients.

Methods

iAbetics approaches the challenge as a quality management problem, drawing on total quality concepts, which in turn are grounded in application of the scientific method. We frame the diabetes patient''s quality-of-care problem as an ongoing scientific investigation aimed at quantifying and predicting relationships between specific care-management actions and their outcomes for individual patients in their ordinary course of life.

Results

Framing diabetes quality-of-care management as a scientific investigation leads to a seven-step model termed “adaptive empirical iteration.” Adaptive empirical iteration is a deliberate process to perfect the patient''s choices, decisions, and actions in routine situations that make up most day-to-day life and to systematically adapt across differences in individual patients and/or changes in their physiology, diet, or environment. The architecture incorporates care-protocol management and version control, structured formats for data collection using mobile smart phones, statistical analysis on secure Web sites, tools for comparing alternative protocols, choice architecture technology to improve patient decisions, and information sharing for doctor review.

Conclusions

Adaptive empirical iteration is a foundation for information architecture designed to systematically improve quality-of-care provided to diabetes patients who act as their own day-to-day care provider under supervision and with support from their doctor. The approach defines “must-have” capabilities for systems using new information technology to improve long-term outcomes for diabetes patients.     

Association of diabetes-related emotional distress with diabetes treatment in primary care patients with Type 2 diabetes.

AIMS: To characterize the determinants of diabetes-related emotional distress by treatment modality (diet only, oral medication only, or insulin). METHODS: A total of 815 primary care patients with Type 2 diabetes completed the Problem Areas in Diabetes (PAID) Scale and other questions. We linked survey data to a diabetes clinical research database and used linear regression models to assess the associations of treatment with PAID score. RESULTS: PAID scores were significantly higher among insulin-treated (24.6) compared with oral-treated (17.8, P < 0.001) or diet-treated patients (14.7, P < 0.001), but not different between oral- vs. diet-treated patients (P = 0.2). Group scores remained similar, but the statistical significance of their differences was reduced and ultimately eliminated after sequential adjustment for diabetes severity, HbA(1c), body mass index, regimen adherence, and self-blood-glucose monitoring. Insulin-treated patients reported significantly higher distress than oral- or diet-treated patients on 16 of 20 PAID items. 'Worrying about the future' and 'guilt/anxiety when ... off track with diabetes' were the top two serious problems (PAID >or= 5) in all treatment groups. Not accepting diabetes diagnosis was a top concern for oral- and diet-treated patients, and unclear management goals distressed diet-treated patients. CONCLUSIONS: Primary care patients treated with insulin reported higher diabetes-related emotional distress compared with oral- or diet-treated patients. Greater distress was largely explained by greater disease severity and self-care burdens. To improve diabetes-specific quality of life, clinicians should address patients' sense of worry and guilt, uncertain acceptance of diabetes diagnosis, and unclear treatment goals.     

Association between pediatric home management plan of care compliance and asthma readmission

Objectives: In 2007, The Joint Commission implemented three children's asthma care (CAC) measures to help improve the quality of care for patients admitted with asthma. Due to lack of consistent evidence showing a relationship between home management plan of care (HMPC) compliance and readmission rates, CAC-3 was retired in 2016. We aimed to understand the relationship between HMPC compliance and revisits to the hospital, and investigate which components of the HMPC, if any, were driving the effect. Methods: This was a retrospective cohort study at a quaternary care freestanding children's hospital, including patients between 2 and 17 years of age admitted with a primary diagnosis of asthma between January 1, 2006, and July 1, 2013. Bivariate and multiple logistic regression analyses examined effects of HMPC provider compliance on hospital readmission and emergency department utilization for asthma within 180 days of initial discharge, controlling for admission to the intensive care unit, age, gender, ethnicity, insurance type, and whether inhaled corticosteroids were prescribed. Results: A total of 1,176 patients were included. Those discharged with an HMPC (n = 756, of which 84% were fully compliant) were found to have significantly lower readmission rates (7 vs. 11.9%; aOR = 0.63; 95% CI, 0.41–0.95) and ED revisit rates (aOR = 0.73; 95% CI, 0.56–0.96) within 180 days of discharge. Conclusions: Providing an HMPC upon discharge was found to be associated with decreased asthma readmission and ED utilization rates. This suggests that although HMPC is no longer a required measure, there may still be utility in continuing this practice.     

Prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes and quality of care in diabetic patients followed at primary and tertiary clinics in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

AIMS: To investigate the prevalence of undiagnosed type 2 diabetes (T2D) at primary health care (PHC) clinics, and to assess the quality of care of diabetic patients followed at a tertiary hospital diabetes center in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (UAE). METHODS: Between May 2009 and October 2010, adult patients attending two PHC clinics, and adult diabetic patients attending the diabetes center, were invited to participate in the study. After overnight fast, participants returned for interview and laboratory tests. Undiagnosed T2D was defined by FPG ≥ 7.0 mmol/l or HbA1c ≥ 6.5%. Quality of care was assessed by reported care practices and achievement of internationally recognized targets. RESULTS: Out of 239 patients at PHC clinics without history of T2D, 14.6% had undiagnosed T2D, and 31% had increased risk of diabetes (FPG 5.6-7.0 mmol/l or HbA1c 5.7-6.5%). The independent predictors of undiagnosed T2D were age (adjusted OR per year 1.07, 95% CI 1.04-1.11, p < 0.001) and BMI ≥ 25 (adjusted OR 4.2, 95% CI 0.91-19.7, p = 0.033). Amongst all 275 diagnosed T2D patients, including those attending PHC clinics and those followed at the diabetes center, it was found that 40.1% followed dietary recommendations, 12% reported visiting a diabetes educator, 28.2% walked for exercise, and 13.5% attained recognized targets of HbA1c < 7%, blood pressure < 130/80 mmHg, and LDL cholesterol < 2.6 mmol/l. CONCLUSIONS: Almost half of the adult patients attending PHC clinics had undiagnosed T2D, or increased diabetes risk. Care practices, and achievement of treatment targets, were suboptimal.     

Audit of public sector primary diabetes care in Cape Town,South Africa: high prevalence of complications,uncontrolled hyperglycaemia,and hypertension

This study was undertaken to investigate the prevalence of diabetes complications and level of glycaemic and blood pressure control in Black African patients at the primary care level in the public sector Cape Town, South Africa. A stratified random sample of 300 patients attending the three largest ambulatory diabetes clinics in community health centres in Black African residential areas of Cape Town (100 patients from each) during the last 6 months of 1992 was selected. Each patient had a clinical examination, interview, and 1 year retrospective record review. Eighty-one per cent of the sampled patients were reviewed, 90 % were non-insulin-dependent (NIDDM) and 10 % were treated with insulin. The mean duration of diabetes was 8 (range 0–28) years. Acceptable glycaemic control was present in 49.4 % (95 % Confidence Intervals 45.6–53.5) of patients while 38.5 % (CI 24.8–52.2) of hypertensive patients had acceptable blood pressure control. The prevalence of any grade of retinopathy was 55.4 % (CI 48.90–62.9), proliferative and preproliferative retinopathy 15.6 % (CI 8.5–22.8), cataracts 7.9 % (CI 4.4–11.4), peripheral neuropathy 27.6 % (CI 15.2–39.4), absent foot pulses 8.2 % (CI 5.2–12.6), amputations 1.4 % (CI 0.4–2.4), persistent proteinuria 5.3 % (CI 2.5–8.1) and an elevated albumin-creatinine ratio 36.7 % (CI 29.0–44.4). The complications were not documented in the clinic records of the preceding year with the exception of 1 patient with absent foot pulses and the 12 patients with proteinuria. The high prevalence of suboptimal glycaemic and blood pressure control as well as complications of diabetes, largely unrecorded in the preceding years’ clinic notes, demonstrates the deficiency of and need for preventative diabetes care at the primary care level. The design, institution, and evaluation of effective intervention programmes are a priority to improve the quality of care provided and the health of diabetic patients. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Frequency of hospital readmission and care fragmentation in gastroparesis:A nationwide analysis

AIM To evaluate rates and predictors of hospital readmission and care fragmentation in patients hospitalized with gastroparesis.METHODS We identified all adult hospitalizations with a primary diagnosis of gastroparesis in the 2010-2014 National Readmissions Database,which captures statewide readmissions.We excluded patients who died during the hospitalization,and calculated 30 and 90-d unplanned readmission and care fragmentation rates.Readmission to a non-index hospital(i.e.,different from the hospital of the index admission) was considered as care fragmentation.A multivariate Cox regression model was used to analyze predictors of 30-d readmissions.Logistic regression was used to determine hospital and patient factors independently associated with 30-d care fragmentation.Patients readmitted within 30 d were followed for 60 d post discharge from the first readmission.Mortality during the first readmission,hospitalization cost,length of stay,and rates of 60-d readmission were compared between those with and without care fragmentation.RESULTS There were 30064 admissions with a primary diagnosis of gastroparesis.The rates of 30 and 90-d readmissions were 26.8% and 45.6%,respectively.Younger age,male patient,diabetes,parenteral nutrition,≥ 4 Elixhauser comorbidities,longer hospital stay( 5 d),large and metropolitan hospital,and Medicaid insurance were associated with increased hazards of 30-d readmissions.Gastric surgery,routine discharge and private insurance were associated with lower 30-d readmissions.The rates of 30 and 90-d care fragmentation were 28.1% and 33.8%,respectively.Younger age,longer hospital stay( 5 d),self-pay or Medicaid insurance were associated with increased risk of 30-d care fragmentation.Diabetes,enteral tube placement,parenteral nutrition,large metropolitan hospital,and routine discharge were associated with decreased risk of 30-d fragmentation.Patients who were readmitted to a non-index hospital had longer length of stay(6.5 vs 5.8 d,P = 0.03),and higher mean hospitalization cost($15645 vs $12311,P 0.0001),compared to those readmitted to the index hospital.There were no differences in mortality(1.0% vs 1.3%,P = 0.84),and 60-d readmission rate(55.3% vs 54.6%,P = 0.99) between the two groups.CONCLUSION Several factors are associated with the high 30-d readmission and care fragmentation in gastroparesis.Knowledge of these predictors can play a role in implementing effective preventive interventions to highrisk patients.     

Improving depression care in patients with diabetes and multiple complications

BACKGROUND: Depression is common in patients with diabetes, but it is often inadequately treated within primary care. Competing clinical demands and treatment resistance may make it especially difficult to improve depressive symptoms in patients with diabetes who have multiple complications. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a collaborative care intervention for depression would be as effective in patients with diabetes who had 2 or more complications as in patients with diabetes who had fewer complications. DESIGN: The Pathways Study was a randomized control trial comparing collaborative care case management for depression and usual primary care. This secondary analysis compared outcomes in patients with 2 or more complications to patients with fewer complications. PATIENTS: Three hundred and twenty-nine patients with diabetes and comorbid depression were recruited through primary care clinics of a large prepaid health plan. MEASUREMENTS: Depression was assessed at baseline, 3, 6, and 12 months with the 20-item depression scale from the Hopkins Symptom Checklist. Diabetes complications were determined from automated patient records. RESULTS: The Pathways collaborative care intervention was significantly more successful at reducing depressive symptoms than usual primary care in patients with diabetes who had 2 or more complications. Patients with fewer than 2 complications experienced similar reductions in depressive symptoms in both intervention and usual care. CONCLUSION: Patients with depression and diabetes who have multiple complications may benefit most from collaborative care for depression. These findings suggest that with appropriate intervention depression can be successfully treated in patients with diabetes who have the highest severity of medical problems.     

Improving quality of care for urban older people with diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease

The management of older patients with chronic medical conditions dominates medical practice. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and diabetes mellitus type 2 (DM) in patients aged 65 and older have reached epidemic proportions. Using elements of the Chronic Care Model (CCM), a quality improvement project was undertaken to restructure the Geriatric Ambulatory Practice at Boston Medical Center, Boston's safety net hospital, to improve the quality of care for CVD and diabetes mellitus. Two hundred eighty-three eligible patients who had CVD, DM, or both were identified. The 39-month project period was divided into a 12-month baseline period and three follow-up periods. The multifaceted intervention consisted of development of a disease registry that centralized clinical information, implementation of an electronic medical record, patient education, physician education regarding evidence-based guidelines, feedback of provider-specific and practice data to physicians, and implementation of a foot examination protocol. Clinical measures included glycosylated hemoglobin, a diabetic foot examination, lipid profile, and blood pressure measurement. These were collected at baseline and at each patient visit for the entire project period. The average age of all patients was 76; 64% were female, 64% were African American, 72% had Medicare, and 22% had state subsidized medical insurance. Patients in all disease groups showed significant improvement in all clinical measures over time, independent of the frequency of visits. Using the CCM as a quality improvement framework can improve clinical measures for older urban minority populations with CVD and DM.     

Quality of diabetes care in the UK: comparison of published quality-of-care reports with results of the Quality and Outcomes Framework for Diabetes.

AIMS: To conduct a systematic review of published observational studies of quality of diabetes care in primary care in the UK and to compare the results with the quality of care data from the Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF) of the new General Practice Contract in the UK. METHODS: medline and embase were searched for articles published from 1999 to June 2006. We also searched for reference lists of studies that fitted our inclusion criteria. All members of the Primary Care Diabetes Europe were contacted and asked to send lists of any relevant published articles. Abstracts were reviewed and data were collected independently by two authors. RESULTS: Abstracts of 742 papers were identified, of which six papers fulfilled the final selection criteria. The total number of people included in the six published studies was 83 098 (a range of 504 to 54 180 people) compared with the UK QOF data of 1.8 million people with diabetes. The quality indicators for assessment of care varied between different published studies, making comparisons more difficult. Overall, there was a trend towards improvement in both process and outcome of care in the published studies. The quality of care achieved as a result of QOF was greater than that found in published studies. CONCLUSIONS: There have been improvements in both process and outcome measures recorded in publications of quality of diabetes care in the UK between 2000 and 2004. Modest financial incentives in primary care are a successful method of improving care for people with diabetes.     

Quality of care for patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus--a long-term comparison of two quality improvement programmes in the Netherlands.

AIM: To compare two intervention programmes, aimed at improving the quality of care provided for patients with Type 2 diabetes in the longer term. METHODS: A retrospective comparison of data derived from two non-randomized trials with 3.5 years of follow-up. In the first intervention group 401 patients were included, 413 in the second intervention group and 105 in the reference group. The first programme focused on improving the skills and knowledge of general practitioners (GPs) with regard to Type 2 diabetes, and supported them in making organizational changes in their practice (GP care only). Centralized shared diabetes care was implemented in the second programme in which the GPs received therapy advice according to a protocol for each individual patient. The patients were also encouraged in self-management, and received structured diabetes education (Diabetes Service). The main patient outcomes were HbA1c, blood pressure and serum lipid levels. Multilevel analysis was applied to adjust for dependency between repeated observations within one patient and for clustering of patients within general practices. RESULTS: The HbA1c levels of patients of GPs who were supported by the Diabetes Service improved significantly more than the HbA1c levels of patients receiving GP care only (-0.28% [95% confidence interval (CI) -0.45; -0.11]). In contrast, the systolic blood pressure of patients receiving GP care only decreased more than that of patients of GPs supported by the Diabetes Service [4.14 mmHg (95% CI 1.77, 6.51)]. CONCLUSION: A Diabetes Service, providing GPs with individual therapy advice and patient education, resulted in better glycaemic control over 3.5 years than an intervention aimed at improving the skills of GPs in combination with organizational changes in the general practice.     

A bundled quality improvement program to standardize clinical blood pressure measurement in primary care

We evaluated use of a program to improve blood pressure measurement at 6 primary care clinics over a 6‐month period. The program consisted of automated devices, clinical training, and support for systems change. Unannounced audits and electronic medical records provided evaluation data. Clinics used devices in 81.0% of encounters and used them as intended in 71.6% of encounters, but implementation fidelity varied. Intervention site systolic and diastolic blood pressure with terminal digit “0” decreased from 32.1% and 33.7% to 11.1% and 11.3%, respectively. Improvement occurred uniformly, regardless of sites’ adherence to the measurement protocol. Providers rechecked blood pressure measurements less often post‐intervention (from 23.5% to 8.1% of visits overall). Providers at sites with high protocol adherence were less likely to recheck measurements than those at low adherence sites. Comparison sites exhibited no change in terminal digit preference or repeat measurements. This study demonstrates that clinics can apply a pragmatic intervention to improve blood pressure measurement. Additional refinement may improve implementation fidelity.