High complication rate of bile duct stents in patients with chronic alcoholic pancreatitis due to noncompliance

BACKGROUND AND STUDY AIMS: Biliary obstruction in chronic pancreatitis is frequently treated by endoscopic insertion of a plastic stent into the common bile duct, a therapy regarded as having a low complication rate. The aim of this study is to analyze the frequency and severity of complications caused by biliary stents in patients with chronic alcoholic pancreatitis. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed all our patients with chronic pancreatitis (n = 14) who were provided with a plastic stent for biliary stenosis between June 1993 and December 1997. Stent exchanges were followed until December 1998. RESULTS: Stent insertion was performed without early complications and was successful in each patient. Only two patients were admitted after 3-4 months at the scheduled dates for stent exchange, both without complications. In one of these patients, the bile duct stenosis was reopened after two stent exchanges over a total period of 8 months. Most of our patients (n=12) did not come at the arranged dates for stent exchange. They were repeatedly admitted (mean 2.9 times/patient, range 1-5) as emergency cases with severe complications of biliary obstruction, such as cholangitis or biliary sepsis. Reopening of the bile duct stenosis was not achieved in these patients. CONCLUSIONS: We associate the high rate of complications with the noncompliance of our patients, who were all alcoholics. The high incidence of late complications in noncompliant patients is a limitation of biliary stenting, and appears to be potentially harmful.     

Salvage treatment of laparoscopic cholecystectomy‐associated bile duct stenosis combining laparoscopic and endoscopic procedures: A case report

The incidence of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC)‐associated bile duct injury has reached a steady state despite learning curve effect. Herein we report the case of a 74‐year‐old Japanese man who suffered from bile duct stenosis and stones after LC. The stenosis was due to stricture caused by surgical clips used inappropriately during LC. We planned a salvage treatment combining laparoscopic and endoscopic approaches. At laparoscopic observation, the clips had already invaded the right side of the bile duct; minimal absorbable suture was performed after all the clips were removed. The bile duct stenosis was then endoscopically dilated and the biliary stones were successfully removed. For the recurrent biliary stenosis after discharge, endoscopic balloon dilation was performed and multiple plastic stent tubes were placed. The stent tubes were removed 4 months later, and the patient has had no symptoms for 1 year. A combined laparoscopic and endoscopic approach was useful for the salvage treatment of LC‐associated bile duct stenosis.     

Endoscopic gallstone extraction following hydrostatic balloon dilatation of stricture in the common bile duct

A patient with long-standing biliary complaints and a previous cholecystojejunostomy, reputed to be suffering from primary biliary cirrhosis was, on endoscopic retrograde cholangiography (ERC), found to have several large gallstones proximal to a stenosis in the common bile duct. After endoscopic papillotomy (EPT), and endoscopic hydrostatic dilatation of the stricture, the gallstones were successfully removed by means of an endoscopic stone extractor. After 15 months the patient remains well, with no complaints, and with completely normal liver function tests.     

Multiple comet tail artifacts in the liver: a case of congenital hepatic fibrosis showing unusual biliary appearance

Congenital hepatic fibrosis (CHF) is a form of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease. Because of the common underlying pathophysiology of ductal plate malformation, CHF can be accompanied by an abnormal biliary appearance, which is characterized by a saccular or fusiform dilatation of the bile ducts. We encountered the case of a 35-year-old man suffering from CHF concomitant with esophageal varices, which were treated by endoscopic sclerotherapy. The patient had elevated serum concentrations of alkaline phosphatase and γ-glutamyl transpeptidase without apparent biliary disease, including hepatolithiasis or a history of cholangitis. Magnetic resonance cholangiography showed an abnormal biliary appearance, which was not saccular or fusiform but had multiple stenosis with unknown causes. B-mode sonogram showed multiple comet tail artifacts in the liver parenchyma, probably corresponding to the compact fibrosis bands and bile in the bile duct as well as peripheral bile duct dilatation, which was proven pathologically. We propose that multiple comet tail artifacts in the liver may suggest the presence of a bile duct abnormality in patients with CHF, suggesting the potential risk for developing biliary complications.     

Endoscopic management of liver abscesses and cysts that communicate with intrahepatic bile ducts

BACKGROUND AND STUDY AIMS: The formation of a communication between liver abscesses or cysts and intrahepatic bile ducts is an uncommon cause of significant bile leak. Surgical management of biliary fistulas is associated with high morbidity and mortality. We performed a prospective study of endoscopic management of this type of biliary fistula. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We studied 26 patients who had either liver abscesses or hepatic cysts that had ruptured into the intrahepatic bile ducts. The presence of a biliary fistula was suspected by jaundice and/or by the appearance of bile in percutaneous drainage effluent from a liver abscess and was confirmed by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Once the route of the fistula between the liver abscess or cyst and the intrahepatic bile duct had been defined by cholangiography, patients underwent treatment by sphincterotomy, and either biliary stenting or nasobiliary drainage. Nasobiliary drains or biliary stents (both 7 Fr) were placed according to standard techniques. Nasobiliary drains were removed when bile leakage stopped and closure of the fistula was confirmed by cholangiography; stents were removed after an interval of 4-6 weeks. RESULTS: Of a total of 525 patients with hepatic abscesses or cysts who were seen over a 5-year period, there were 26 patients who developed a demonstrable communication between liver abscesses (n = 20; 16 amebic, four pyogenic) or hydatid cysts (n = 6) and intrahepatic bile ducts (right intrahepatic bile ducts in 22 patients, left intrahepatic bile ducts in four patients). We performed either sphincterotomy with insertion of a nasobiliary drain (n = 20) or sphincterotomy with biliary stenting (n = 6). The fistulas healed in all patients after a mean time of 4 days (range 2-20 days) after endoscopic treatment. We were able to remove the nasobiliary drainage catheters and stents 6-34 days after their placement. CONCLUSIONS: In this case series, endoscopic therapy appears to be an effective mode of treatment for biliary fistulas complicating liver abscesses and cysts.     

Effectiveness of endoscopic treatment modalities in complicated hepatic hydatid disease after surgical intervention

BACKGROUND AND STUDY AIMS: Hepatic hydatid cyst is a common disease in Turkey and the rupture of the cyst into the biliary tract is the most common complication which is difficult to detect and to manage. The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of endoscopic treatment modalities in hydatid cyst patients with biliary complications who had previously undergone surgery. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Over the last 8 years, by means of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), we have examined 87 patients with postoperative biliary symptoms who had previously undergone surgery for hepatic hydatid disease of the liver. Endoscopic treatment modalities were as follows: endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES) and nasobiliary drainage in patients with biliary fistula; balloon and or bougie dilation and stenting in patients with biliary stricture; and ES and balloon extraction in patients with residual hydatid material within the bile duct. RESULTS: Findings from ERCP included biliary fistula in 55 patients (63.2 %), biliary stricture in 16 (18.4 %), and residual hydatid material within the bile duct in 14 (16.1 %). Two patients had normal findings on ERCP. In total, 85 patients were treated by means of endoscopic modalities. The time to closure of fistula was 17.8 +/- 5 days and the rate of fistula closure was 81 %. Biliary stenting was performed in 13 patients with biliary stricture. Endoscopic removal of hydatid material was achieved in 14 patients. The overall success rate of endoscopic treatment was 86 %, and a second surgical intervention was required only in six patients. No serious complication was encountered after endoscopic procedures. CONCLUSIONS: Endoscopic treatment modalities are safe and helpful methods for the treatment of biliary complications of hepatic hydatid cyst in the postoperative period.     

The thermodilator: an effective instrument in the palliative therapy concept of malignant bile duct stenosis.

BACKGROUND AND METHODS: In the case of incurable malignant bile duct stenosis the aim of therapy is to secure the bile flow. Sometimes dilation of the stenosis is necessary to enable the introduction of a biliary duodenal stent or the replacement of a small-bore stent by a large-bore one. The previously most commonly used methods - bougienage and balloon dilation - can be unsuccessful with severe stenoses, which means that an extension of the endoscopic therapeutic instrumentarium is desirable. We examined the success rates and complications of a thermodilator which can be used to dilate bile duct stenoses. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: In 21 out of 24 applications the therapeutic objective was achieved. In one case we observed an endoscopically controllable bile duct hemorrhage. The thermodilator is therefore a valuable addition to the endoscopic treatment possibilities of malignant bile duct stenosis.     

Complete bile duct sequestration after liver transplantation,caused by ischemic-type biliary lesions

Ischemic-type biliary lesions (ITBLs) are the most frequent cause of nonanastomotic biliary strictures in liver grafts, affecting about 2-19 % of patients after liver transplantation. ITBL is characterized by bile duct destruction, subsequent stricture formation, and sequestration. We report here the case of a patient affected by extremely severe ITBL, with sequestration and disintegration of the entire bile duct system, in which it was possible to extract the complete biliary tree endoscopically in a single piece. Histological examination revealed that all cells of the bile duct wall had been destroyed within 3 months after liver transplantation and replaced by connective tissue. Subsequently, biliary stricture formation occurred at the hepatic hilum, as well as the adjacent large bile ducts. It may be hypothesized that cellular rejection of small bile ducts leads to the vanishing bile duct syndrome, whereas cellular rejection of large bile ducts results in ITBL. The strictures were repeatedly dilated by endoscopic means, allowing successful control of stricture formation, as well as maintenance of liver function. At the time of writing, the grafted organ and the patient had survived for more than 3 years in good health. This is the first detailed report on a sequestration of the entire bile duct system caused by ITBL, successfully treated for several years by endoscopic means.     

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided bilioduodenal anastomosis: a new technique for biliary drainage

Endoscopic biliary stenting is the most common method of treating obstructive jaundice. We present a new technique of biliary drainage using endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) and EUS-guided puncture of the common bile duct (CBD). A 56-year-old man with obstructive jaundice was referred for EUS and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) because a computed tomography (CT) scan had shown a pancreatic mass in the head of the pancreas and a dilated CBD. The patient was enrolled in a preoperative chemoradiotherapy protocol and biliary stenting was required. Deep cannulation was not obtained even after a precut and the procedure was stopped. Using a therapeutic EUS scope (FG 38X Pentax), the CBD was punctured with a 5-F needle-knife under EUS guidance and a cholangiogram was obtained. A 0.35-inch guide wire was introduced into the CBD. The EUS scope was removed and a duodenoscope was introduced, allowing the placement through the duodenum of a 10-F plastic stent. The CBD was drained properly. No complication occurred.     

肝移植术后胆道并发症的内镜下诊治

目的初步探讨内镜在肝移植术后胆道并发症诊治中的临床应用价值。方法35例肝移植术后出现胆道并发症患者,共行ERCP124次,其中行ERCP次数最少为1次,最多为17次,平均为3.54次。根据患者的情况进行扩张、EST、取石、鼻胆管引流、内支架置入等治疗。结果13例为单纯的胆道吻合口狭窄,经胆道扩张后胆道梗阻症状解除,其中1例术后4个月因肝癌远处转移死亡;3例为单纯吻合口胆瘘,经EST及支撑管,胆瘘愈合;7例胆道狭窄合并胆瘘,经EST及胆道扩张后放入支撑管,胆瘘愈合;12例胆道狭窄合并狭窄上端胆总管及肝内胆管结石,经胆道扩张后取出部分结石。所有患者经治疗后胆红素、碱性磷酸酶等酶学指标均有不同程度下降,临床症状明显改善,无严重并发症发生。结论内镜对于肝移植术后胆道并发症的诊断与治疗安全而有效,避免了患者再次外科手术。     

经内镜胆管引流术对良恶性胆管狭窄的治疗体会

目的探讨经内镜胆管引流术对各种良恶性胆管狭窄的治疗效果。方法67例良恶性胆管狭窄病人先行内镜逆行胰胆管造影(ERCP)检查,确定胆管狭窄病变部位和性质后,再决定使用以下三种治疗中的一种:内镜下鼻胆管引流(ENBD)、内镜下塑料胆道支架引流(ERBD)和内镜下金属胆道支架引流(EMBE)。结果针对良性胆管狭窄行ENBD 21例,主要见于胆总管结石;针对恶性胆管狭窄行ERBD 29例,行EMBE 17例,主要见于胰头癌、胆管癌、壶腹癌、原发性肝癌及肝门及肝内转移压迫胆管,所有病例均在引流后总胆红素及直接胆红素明显下降。结论经内镜下胆管引流术的应用愈来愈广泛,其操作安全而有效,特别是对各种良恶性病变引起的胆管狭窄起了关键性的治疗作用。     

肝移植术后胆道并发症的内镜诊治

目的：探讨肝移植术后胆道并发症的内镜诊疗价值。方法：2001年4月～2004年7月对12例肝移植术后胆道并发症患者，应用电子十二指肠镜进行胆道造影，乳头切开、取石、放置鼻胆管或塑料内支架引流等诊疗方法。结果：原位肝移植术后出现胆道并发症12例，共行ERCP15次：胆管吻合口狭窄、胆总管结石伴急性梗阻性化脓性胆管炎3例，急诊内镜取石、鼻胆管引流，再次内镜胆总管塑料内支架引流。胆管吻合口狭窄伴胆管泥沙样结石2例，内镜乳头切开、取石、引流。胆管吻合口狭窄5例，其中塑料内支架引流2例，未置引流1例，鼻胆管放置失败1例，胆管吻合口严重狭窄导丝无法通过1例。胆漏2例，因胆总管吻合口严重狭窄，导丝未能通过。结论：肝移植术后胆道并发症经内镜诊疗具有微创、安全、有效，有一定的诊疗价值。     

从胆道内镜角度分析和认识原位肝移植后的胆遭并发症

背景:胆道并发症是肝移植后患者常见的死亡原因,胆道内镜微创技术正逐步成为解决原位肝移植后胆道并发症的重要手段.目的:分析文献中关于肝移植后胆道并发症的阐述和论证,明确胆道内镜在胆管铸型并发症中的地位和作用.方法:以orthotopic liver transplantation, biliary complications, Biliary tract, endoscope technique 为检索词,检索Pubmed数据库(1980-01/2008-10);以肝移植,胆道并发症,胆管铸型,胆道镜为检索词,检索维普咨询数据库(1994/2009-01)、CNKI数据库(1994/2009-01).文献检索语种限制为英文和中文.纳入肝移植后胆管损伤导致胆管并发症相关的内容.排除肝移植胆道并发症以外的研究.结果与结论:计算机初检得到52篇文献,根据纳入排除标准,对30篇进行分析.胆道并发症是肝移植后患者常见死亡原因,由于早期识别困难及处理棘手,正越来越受到重视.治疗性ERCP和胆道镜技术,成为解决移植后胆道并发症的重要手段和首选方法.     

Plastic biliary stents for benign biliary diseases

Biliary plastic stenting plays a key role in the endoscopic management of benign biliary diseases. Complications following surgery of the biliary tract and liver transplantation are amenable to endoscopic treatment by plastic stenting. Insertion of an increasing number of plastic stents is currently the method of choice to treat postoperative biliary strictures. Benign biliary strictures secondary to chronic pancreatitis or primary sclerosing cholangitis may benefit from plastic stenting in select cases. There is a role for plastic stent placement in nonoperative candidates with acute cholecystitis and in patients with irretrievable bile duct stones.     

Role of endoscopic retrograde cholangiography and nasobiliary drainage in the management of postoperative biliary leak

In order to assess the role of endoscopic retrograde cholangiography in evaluating the patients with post-operative biliary leak and of endoscopic nasobiliary drainage in its management, 36 patients with biliary leak seen over a period of 9 years were studied. Thirty-two had biliary leak following cholecystectomy, 3 following repair of liver trauma and 1 following choledochoduodenostomy. Patients presented at an interval of 4 days to 210 days (mean +/- SEM, 32.4 +/- 6.7 days) following laparotomy. Hyperbilirubinemia was noticed in only 13 patients (36.1%), while abdominal ultrasonogram showed ascites or biloma in 24 (66.7%). Endoscopic retrograde cholangiography showed the leak to involve the common bile duct in 55.6%, cystic duct in 33.3% and intrahepatic biliary radicles in 8.3%. Associated lesions included bile duct obstruction due to stricture or accidental ligature in 20%, bile duct stone in 20% and liver abscess in 2.8%.Endoscopic nasobiliary drainage using a 7 Fr pig-tail catheter was attempted in 14 patients and could be established in 12 of them. Bile duct leak sealed in all but one of these 12 patients after an interval of 3 days to 40 days (mean +/- SEM, 12.2 +/- 3.2 days). A single patient with large defect and a proximal bile duct stricture did not respond and required surgery. Common bile duct stones were removed by endoscopic sphincterotomy in 3 out of 4 patients. One patient with large stone required surgical choledocholithotomy. In conclusion, endoscopic retrograde cholangiography was safe and useful in confirming the presence of leak as well as its site, size and associated abnormalities. Endoscopic nasobiliary drainage proved an effective therapy in post-operative biliary leak and could avoid re-exploration in 71.4% patients.     

肝移植后胆道并发症的超声诊断价值

背景：肝移植后胆道并发症可引起移植后肝失功,超声是移植肝胆道并发症的重要检查手段之一。目的：探讨超声对肝移植后胆道并发症的诊断价值。 方法：纳入92例肝移植患者,男81例,女11例,年龄21-67岁;其中同种异体原位肝移植90例,活体部分肝移植2例;胆道重建方式均为胆管-胆管端端吻合。回顾性分析肝移植后常规检查及彩色多普勒超声检查结果,着重分析患者有无胆漏、胆道狭窄、胆泥或胆石形成,部分患者于超声引导下穿刺引流。 结果与结论：92例患者中超声诊断肝移植后胆道并发症14例：胆漏5例;胆道狭窄4例,其中吻合口狭窄2例,非吻合口狭窄2例;4例胆泥形成;1例胆管结石。提示肝移植胆道并发症患者有特征性超声表现,超声对肝移植后胆道并发症的诊断有重要价值。     

Treatment of common bile duct injuries after surgery

The treatment of common biliary duct injuries after surgery is a permanent challenge for physicians, and management by a multidisciplinary team is often required. The endoscopic approach is a valuable tool because it is able to assess the problem and also provide a therapeutic option for both fistulas and stenosis of the biliary tree. This article discusses the endoscopic management of postsurgical injuries of the common bile duct and discusses the application of practical tools.     

Biliary stenting: indications, choice of stents and results: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) clinical guideline

This article is part of a combined publication that expresses the current view of the European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy about endoscopic biliary stenting. The present Clinical Guideline describes short-term and long-term results of biliary stenting depending on indications and stent models; it makes recommendations on when, how, and with which stent to perform biliary drainage in most common clinical settings, including in patients with a potentially resectable malignant biliary obstruction and in those who require palliative drainage of common bile duct or hilar strictures. Treatment of benign conditions (strictures related to chronic pancreatitis, liver transplantation, or cholecystectomy, and leaks and failed biliary stone extraction) and management of complications (including stent revision) are also discussed. A two-page executive summary of evidence statements and recommendations is provided. A separate Technology Review describes the models of biliary stents available and the stenting techniques, including advanced techniques such as insertion of multiple plastic stents, drainage of hilar strictures, retrieval of migrated stents and combined stenting in malignant biliary and duodenal obstructions.The target readership for the Clinical Guideline mostly includes digestive endoscopists, gastroenterologists, oncologists, radiologists, internists, and surgeons while the Technology Review should be most useful to endoscopists who perform biliary drainage.     

Postendoscopic sphincterotomy stenosis

We report on two patients. The first patient is a 62-year-old female patient who had cholecystectomy in 1970, and in whom two small bile duct stones were removed after endoscopic sphincterotomy in 1987. Within two months of this procedure, she developed three episodes of documented acute pancreatitis. The other patient, a 58-year-old female, developed acute pancreatitis three months after an endoscopic sphincterotomy for stones in the common bile duct. In both patients, ERCP revealed a cicatricial stenosis of the common bile duct and the pancreatic duct. The condition was resolved by repeat sphincterotomy. The first patient needed repeated endoscopic insertion of bilioduodenal endoprostheses and an endoprosthesis in the pancreatic duct. It is interesting to note that, in contrast to surgical reports, very few postpapillotomy stenoses are reported by endoscopists.     

Secondary sclerosing cholangitis from percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage in a patient with gallbladder cancer after surgery: A case report

Secondary sclerosing cholangitis (SSC) is a chronic cholestatic liver disease characterized by fibrosis and stricture of the bile ducts. SSC in association with multiple factors such as spontaneous choledochoduodenal fistula and metastatic gallbladder cancer has rarely been reported. However, to the best of our knowledge, reports of SSC after percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage (PTBD), especially in cases with diffuse calcification of the bile duct walls, have not been reported. We report a case of SSC from PTBD in a patient with gallbladder cancer after surgery. The patient underwent external percutaneous biliary drainage for malignant bile duct obstruction after cholecystectomy. Repeated exchanges were performed at the first and the sixth month after PTBD using an internal and external drainage catheter. Two months after the third catheter exchange, findings of laboratory and imaging examinations were suggestive of SSC. The liver function tests of the patient were suggestive of cholestasis. Multidetector computed tomography showed diffuse calcification of the bile duct walls. Cholangiography showed intrahepatic biliary stenosis or dilatation.