Melatonin suppresses proinflammatory mediators in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated CRL1999 cells via targeting MAPK, NF-κB, c/EBPβ, and p300 signaling

Melatonin is an indoleamine secreted by the pineal gland as well as a plant-derived product that exerts potential anti-inflammatory properties, but the mechanisms of action remain unclear. Here, we investigated the roles of melatonin in regulation of proinflammatory mediators and identified the underlying mechanisms in human vascular smooth muscle (VSM) cell line CRL1999 stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). We found that treatment with melatonin significantly inhibited the production and expression of TNF-α and interleukin (IL)-1β, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible nitric oxide synthase, prostaglandin E(2) (PGE2), and nitric oxide (NO) in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, we also found that the suppression of proinflammatory mediators by melatonin was mediated through inhibition of MAPK, NF-κB, c/EBPβ, and p300 signaling in LPS-stimulated CRL1999 cells. Treatment with melatonin markedly inhibited phosphorylation of ERK1/2, JNK, p38 MAPK, IκB-α, and c/EBPβ, blocked binding of NF-κB and c/EBPβ to promoters, and suppressed p300 histone acetyltransferase (HAT) activity and p300 HAT-mediated NF-κB acetylation. Transfection with an ERK-, IκB-, or c/EBPβ-specific siRNA or pretreatment with an ERK-, p38 MAPK-, or p300-selective inhibitor considerably abrogated the melatonin-mediated inhibition of proinflammatory mediators. Conversely, exogenous overexpression of a constitutively active p300, but not its HAT mutant, effectively reversed the melatonin-mediated inhibitions. Collectively, these results indicate that melatonin suppresses proinflammatory mediators by simultaneously targeting the multiple signaling such as ERK/p38 MAPK, c/EBPβ, NF-κB, and p300, in LPS-stimulated VSM cell line CRL1999, and suggest that melatonin is a potential candidate compound for the treatment of proinflammatory disorders.     

Cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of melatonin in hydrogen peroxide-stimulated CHON-001 human chondrocyte cell line and rabbit model of osteoarthritis via the SIRT1 pathway

Melatonin has potent antioxidant, analgesic, and antinociceptive properties. However, the effects of melatonin against oxidative stress-induced cytotoxicity and inflammatory mediators in human chondrocytes remain poorly understood. This study examined the effects and underlying mechanism of melatonin in hydrogen peroxide (H(2) O(2) )-stimulated human chondrocytes and rabbit osteoarthritis (OA) model. Melatonin markedly inhibited hydrogen peroxide (H(2) O(2) )-stimulated cytotoxicity, iNOS, and COX-2 protein and mRNA expression, as well as the downstream products, NO and PGE(2) . Incubation of cells with melatonin decreased H(2) O(2) -induced Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) mRNA and protein expression. SIRT1 inhibition by sirtinol or Sirt1 siRNA reversed the effects of melatonin on H(2) O(2) -mediated induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines (NO, PGE(2) , TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-8) and the expression of iNOS, COX-2, and cartilage destruction molecules. Melatonin blocked H(2) O(2) -induced phosphorylation of PI3K/Akt, p38, ERK, JNK, and MAPK, as well as activation of NF-κB, which was reversed by sirtinol and SIRT1 siRNA. In rabbit with OA, intra-articular injection of melatonin significantly reduced cartilage degradation, which was reversed by sirtinol. Taken together, this study shows that melatonin exerts cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects in an oxidative stress-stimulated chondrocyte model and rabbit OA model, and that the SIRT1 pathway is strongly involved in this effect.     

Cellular stress response in Eca-109 cells inhibits apoptosis during early exposure to isorhamnetin

The flavonol aglycone isorhamnetin shows anti-proliferative activity in a variety of cancer cells. Previous work, from our laboratory showed that isorhamnetin inhibits the proliferation of human esophageal squamous carcinoma Eca-109 cells in vitro, but only after 72 h of exposure. This led us to propose that isorhamnetin exposure induces a cellular stress response that inhibits the antiproliferative and apoptotic effects of the compound during early exposure. To test this hypothesis, the present study examined the effects of isorhamnetin on Eca-109 cells during the first 72 h of exposure. Cell growth was assessed using the trypan blue exclusion assay, and expression of IκBα, NF-κB/p65, NF-κB/p50, phospho-Akt, Bcl-2, COX-2, Mcl-1, Bax, p53 and Id-1 were analyzed by Western blot. During the first 72 h of exposure, NF-κB/p65 and NF-κB/p50 accumulated in nuclei and expression of COX-2, Bcl-2 and Mcl-1 increased. In contrast, expression of IκBα and Bax fell initially but later increased. Expression of phospho-Akt and p53 showed no detectable change during the first 48 h. Pretreatment with the NF-κB inhibitor MG132 before exposure to isorhamnetin blocked the nuclear accumulation of p50 and p65, thereby inhibiting cell proliferation. These results show that during early exposure of Eca-109 cells to isorhamnetin, the NF-κB signaling pathway is activated and COX-2 expression increases, and this increase in expression partially inhibits isorhamnetin-induced apoptosis. Beyond 72 h of exposure, however, the apoptotic effect of isorhamnetin dominates, leading to inhibition of the NF-κB pathway and of cellular proliferation. These results will need to be taken into account when exploring the use of isorhamnetin against cancer in vivo.     

Melatonin down‐regulates MDM2 gene expression and enhances p53 acetylation in MCF‐7 cells

Compelling evidence demonstrated that melatonin increases p53 activity in cancer cells. p53 undergoes acetylation to be stabilized and activated for driving cells destined for apoptosis/growth inhibition. Over‐expression of p300 induces p53 acetylation, leading to cell growth arrest by increasing p21 expression. In turn, p53 activation is mainly regulated in the nucleus by MDM2. MDM2 also acts as E3 ubiquitin ligase, promoting the proteasome‐dependent p53 degradation. MDM2 entry into the nucleus is finely tuned by two different modulations: the ribosomal protein L11, acts by sequestering MDM2 in the cytosol, whereas the PI3K‐AkT‐dependent MDM2 phosphorylation is mandatory for MDM2 translocation across the nuclear membrane. In addition, MDM2‐dependent targeting of p53 is regulated in a nonlinear fashion by MDM2/MDMX interplay. Melatonin induces both cell growth inhibition and apoptosis in MCF7 breast cancer cells. We previously reported that this effect is associated with reduced MDM2 levels and increased p53 activity. Herein, we demonstrated that melatonin drastically down‐regulates MDM2 gene expression and inhibits MDM2 shuttling into the nucleus, given that melatonin increases L11 and inhibits Akt‐PI3K‐dependent MDM2 phosphorylation. Melatonin induces a 3‐fold increase in both MDMX and p300 levels, decreasing simultaneously Sirt1, a specific inhibitor of p300 activity. Consequently, melatonin‐treated cells display significantly higher values of both p53 and acetylated p53. Thus, a 15‐fold increase in p21 levels was observed in melatonin‐treated cancer cells. Our results provide evidence that melatonin enhances p53 acetylation by modulating the MDM2/MDMX/p300 pathway, disclosing new insights for understanding its anticancer effect.     

EGF activates PI3K-Akt and NF-κB via distinct pathways in salivary epithelial cells in Sjögren’s syndrome

Epidermal growth factor (EGF) exerts tropic effects on salivary epithelial cells. We examined EGF-mediated signaling pathways in the salivary epithelial cells of patients with Sjögren’s syndrome (SS). We compared the immunohistochemical expression of EGF receptor (EGF-R), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), Akt and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) in the labial salivary glands of SS patients (n = 6) with those of control subjects (n = 2). EGF-mediated signaling pathways were further studied in vitro (n = 3) using primary salivary epithelial cells; NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation and Akt phosphorylation were examined by immunofluorescence and western blotting, respectively. The phosphorylation of EGF-R and Akt, and the nuclear expression of NF-κB p65, were increased in situ in the salivary epithelial cells of SS patients compared with those of control subjects. Epidermal growth factor induced rapid EGF-R phosphorylation and NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation in primary salivary epithelial cells in vitro. However, EGF also induced late Akt phosphorylation (after 12 h). Chemical inhibition of PI3K-Akt by LY294002/wortmannin did not affect EGF-mediated NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation; and NF-κB inhibition by Bay 11-7082 did not suppress Akt phosphorylation. Our data suggest that EGF stimulates both the PI3K-Akt pathway and NF-κB via distinct mechanisms, promoting tropic effects in SS salivary epithelial cells.     

Melatonin synergizes the chemotherapeutic effect of 5‐fluorouracil in colon cancer by suppressing PI3K/AKT and NF‐κB/iNOS signaling pathways

5‐Fluorouracil (5‐FU) is one of the most commonly used chemotherapeutic agents in colon cancer treatment, but has a narrow therapeutic index limited by its toxicity. Melatonin exerts antitumor activity in various cancers, but it has never been combined with 5‐FU as an anticolon cancer treatment to improve the chemotherapeutic effect of 5‐FU. In this study, we assessed such combinational use in colon cancer and investigated whether melatonin could synergize the antitumor effect of 5‐FU. We found that melatonin significantly enhanced the 5‐FU‐mediated inhibition of cell proliferation, colony formation, cell migration and invasion in colon cancer cells. We also found that melatonin synergized with 5‐FU to promote the activation of the caspase/PARP‐dependent apoptosis pathway and induce cell cycle arrest. Further mechanism study demonstrated that melatonin synergized the antitumor effect of 5‐FU by targeting the PI3K/AKT and NF‐κB/inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) signaling. Melatonin in combination with 5‐FU markedly suppressed the phosphorylation of PI3K, AKT, IKKα, IκBα, and p65 proteins, promoted the translocation of NF‐κB p50/p65 from the nuclei to cytoplasm, abrogated their binding to the iNOS promoter, and thereby enhanced the inhibition of iNOS signaling. In addition, pretreatment with a PI3K‐ or iNOS‐specific inhibitor synergized the antitumor effects of 5‐FU and melatonin. Finally, we verified in a xenograft mouse model that melatonin and 5‐FU exerted synergistic antitumor effect by inhibiting the AKT and iNOS signaling pathways. Collectively, our study demonstrated that melatonin synergized the chemotherapeutic effect of 5‐FU in colon cancer through simultaneous suppression of multiple signaling pathways.     

Prevention of ERK activation involves melatonin-induced G(1) and G(2) /M phase arrest in the human osteoblastic cell line hFOB 1.19

Melatonin regulates mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and Akt signaling pathways. The MAPK family mainly includes extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). Our previous study documented that melatonin delays osteoblast proliferation; however, the mechanism of action of melatonin remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that melatonin significantly inhibited phosphorylation of ERK but not p38, JNK, or Akt in a human osteoblastic cell line 1.19 (hFOB), as measured by western blot. The expression of ERK, p38, JNK, and Akt was not altered. PD98059 (a selective inhibitor of MEK that disrupts downstream activation of ERK) and melatonin alone, and especially in combination, significantly induced an antiproliferative effect, G(1) and G(2) /M phase arrest of the cell cycle, and downregulation of the expression at both the protein and mRNA levels of cyclin D1 and CDK4, related to the G(1) phase, and of cyclin B1 and CDK1, related to the G(2) /M phase, as measured by the 3-(4,5-dimethyl-thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) method, flow cytometry after propidium iodide staining, and both western blot and real-time PCR, respectively. Moreover, the combination of PD98059 and melatonin synergistically and markedly augmented the action of either agent alone. Coimmunoprecipitation further confirmed that there was an interaction between phosphorylation of ERK and cyclin D1, CDK4, cyclin B1, or CDK1, which was weaken in the presence of melatonin or PD98059. These results suggest that the prevention of ERK activation is involved in melatonin-induced G(1) and G(2) /M phase arrest, and this inhibitory effect is potentially via the ERK, but not p38, JNK, or Akt, pathway.     

紫草素对HepG2细胞增殖、凋亡和PI3K/Akt/NF-κB信号通路蛋白表达的影响*

目的 研究紫草素对肝癌HepG2细胞增殖、凋亡和磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(PI3K)/蛋白激酶(Akt)/核转录因子-κB(NF-κB)信号通路的影响。方法 以0(对照)、1、2.5和5 μmol/L紫草素分别处理对数生长期的HepG2细胞48 h,分别采用MTT法检测细胞增殖,使用流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡,采用Western blot法检测凋亡相关蛋白(Bax、Bcl-2、Caspase-3)、细胞自噬相关蛋白(LC3-I、LC3-II、p62)和PI3K/Akt/NF-κB通路蛋白表达情况。结果 自小剂量、中剂量到大剂量,紫草素处理HepG2细胞增殖抑制率分别为(23.7±3.5)%、(36.2±6.1)%和(56.9±8.3)%,均显著高于对照组[(0.0±0.0)%,P<0.05],细胞凋亡率分别为(19.2±5.3)%、(37.4±7.6)%和(58.6±8.8)%,均显著高于对照组[(2.5±1.2)%,P<0.05];细胞凋亡相关蛋白表达Bax/Bcl-2比值和Caspase-3相对表达量分别为(1.3±0.2)和(2.7±0.3)、(8.2±0.6)和(0.45±0.10)和(0.78±0.16)和(0.95±0.21),显著高于对照组[分别为(0.6±0.1)和(0.18±0.06),P<0.05];细胞自噬相关蛋白表达LC3-II/LC3-I比值为(1.25±0.08)、(1.43±0.10)和(1.76±0.22),显著高于对照组[(0.96±0.08),P<0.05],p62相对表达水平分别为(0.81±0.09)、(0.62±0.15)和(0.43±0.08),显著低于对照组[(1.06±0.05),P<0.05]; PI3K、Akt和p65蛋白表达水平分别为【(0.64±0.16)、(0.51±0.12)和(0.32±0.06)】、(【0.54±0.17)、(0.37±0.05)和(0.05±0.01)】和【(0.63±0.15)、(0.52±0.10)和(0.36±0.09)],均显著低于对照组[分别为(0.84±0.13)、(0.76±0.15)和(0.89±0.11),P<0.05]。结论 紫草素可能通过抑制PI3K/Akt/NF-κB信号通路关键蛋白表达促进HepG2细胞凋亡和自噬,从而具有抑瘤作用。     

己酮可可碱对人食管癌EC9706细胞增殖及NF—κB p65、COX-2、Ki-67蛋白表达的影响

目的探讨己酮可可碱（PTX）对肿瘤细胞的增殖抑制作用及机制。方法体外培养人食管癌EC9706细胞,用不同质量浓度的PTX进行干预,采用MTT法检测细胞增殖抑制率（IR）,免疫组化染色SP法检测核转录因子-κB（NF—κB p65）、环氧化酶-2（COX-2）、Ki-67蛋白表达。结果PTX处理后EC9706细胞IR明显升高,NF-κB P65、COX-2蛋白及Ki-67蛋白表达明显下降（P〈0．05）,且呈时间-浓度依赖性。结论PTX可抑制EC9706细胞增殖,可能机制为下调NF-κB、COX-2及Ki-67蛋白表达;此为PTX治疗食管癌提供了理论依据。     

Akt和核因子κB信号通路在胃癌细胞化学治疗耐药中的作用

目的 探讨Akt、核因子(NF)-κB信号通路在胃癌细胞化学治疗耐药中的作用,以及Akt、NF-κB信号通路的相互作用关系.方法 采用化学治疗药物阿霉素、足叶乙甙及两药联合应用Akt抑制剂(Wortmannin)或NF-κB抑制剂(MG-132)分别作用于胃癌细胞(SGC-7901).用四甲基偶氮唑盐比色法(MTT法)检测SGC-7901细胞增长率;TUNEL法和膜联蛋白V/碘化丙啶(PI)双标法检测肿瘤细胞凋亡;免疫细胞化学法检测NF-κB/P65蛋白表达;电泳迁移率实验(EMSA)法检测NF-κB-DNA结合活性的变化;Western印迹法检测磷酸化Akt或磷酸化NF-κB抑制因子(IκB)α蛋白的表达.结果 ①阿霉素和足叶乙甙均能明显抑制SGC-7901细胞的生长,并呈时间、剂量依赖性;分别联合应用Wortmannin或MG-132后能进一步抑制其生长.②化学治疗药物剂量依赖性地诱导SGC-7901细胞凋亡和NF-κB或Akt活化,联合应用MG-132或Wortmannin均能增强化学治疗药物的诱导凋亡作用和抑制NF-κB或Akt活化作用.③Wortmannin可明显抑制NF-κB的活化,而MG-132对Akt的活化无明显影响.结论 化学治疗药物诱导SGC-7901细胞凋亡的同时诱导Akt、NF-κB活化,抑制Akt、NF-κB的活化可增加化学治疗药物的疗效.     

Melatonin, and to a lesser extent growth hormone, restores colonic smooth muscle physiology in old rats

There is increasing evidence that aging is associated with oxidative damage, inflammation, and apoptosis in different cell types. However, there is limited information regarding aging mechanisms in colon smooth muscle. Old male Wistar rats (22 months) were treated for 10 wks with melatonin or growth hormone (GH). Animals were sacrificed at 24 months of age by decapitation. The colon was dissected and the smooth muscle homogenized. H(2)O(2) and malonyl dialdehyde (MDA) content and catalase and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activities were determined using colorimetric kits. Expression of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), caspase-3, and caspase-9 were determined by Western blot. Aging of colon smooth muscle correlated with an increase in H(2)O(2) and MDA levels when compared with young animals in both proximal and distal segments; these changes were associated with a decrease in the catalase activity in the distal colon. Oxidative stress correlated with an increase in COX-2 and NF-κB expression, which were accompanied by an enhanced expression of the pro-apoptotic enzyme caspase-3 and its upstream enzyme, caspase-9. Melatonin treatment normalized the oxidative, inflammatory, and apoptotic patterns, whereas GH replacement, although effective in reducing oxidative stress in distal colon, did not reverse the age-related inflammation or apoptosis. These results suggest that melatonin should be the treatment of choice to most effectively recover physiological functions in aged colonic smooth muscle.     

Effect of tick saliva on signalling pathways activated by TLR-2 ligand and Borrelia afzelii in dendritic cells

Dendritic cells are a sentinel in defending against pathogens and tick saliva facilitates transmission of tick-borne pathogens by modulating the host immune response. The maturation of dendritic cells is inhibited by tick saliva. To elucidate the mechanism of this inhibition, we tested the impact of Ixodes ricinus tick saliva on signalling pathways activated by Toll-like receptor (TLR-2) ligand and Borrelia afzelii in spleen dendritic cells. The activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 and phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathways was decreased by tick saliva upon both TLR-2 and Borrelia stimulation. Among the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), the activation of extracellular matrix-regulated kinase (Erk1/2) was suppressed by tick saliva, but not p38. In response to spirochaetes, the amount of TNF-α decreased in the presence of tick saliva which was mediated by selective suppression of Erk1/2, NF-κB and Akt as tick saliva mimicked the effect of their specific inhibitors, UO126, IKK-IV and LY294002, respectively. Saliva-induced enhancement of IL-10 was not observed in the presence of specific inhibitor of Protein Kinase A (PKA), H-89, suggesting the involvement of PKA pathway in IL-10 production. Our cumulative data show that tick saliva interferes with several signalling pathways, thus modulating the immune functions of dendritic cells.     

Melatonin attenuates hypoxic pulmonary hypertension by inhibiting the inflammation and the proliferation of pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells

Hypoxia‐induced inflammation and excessive proliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) play important roles in the pathological process of hypoxic pulmonary hypertension (HPH). Melatonin possesses anti‐inflammatory and antiproliferative properties. However, the effect of melatonin on HPH remains unclear. In this study, adult Sprague–Dawley rats were exposed to intermittent chronic hypoxia for 4 wk to mimic a severe HPH condition. Hemodynamic and pulmonary pathomorphology data showed that chronic hypoxia significantly increased right ventricular systolic pressures (RVSP), weight of the right ventricle/left ventricle plus septum (RV/LV+S) ratio, and median width of pulmonary arterioles. Melatonin attenuated the elevation of RVSP, RV/LV+S, and mitigated the pulmonary vascular structure remodeling. Melatonin also suppressed the hypoxia‐induced high expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), hypoxia‐inducible factor‐1α (HIF‐1α), and nuclear factor‐κB (NF‐κB). In vitro, melatonin concentration‐dependently inhibited the proliferation of PASMCs and the levels of phosphorylation of Akt and extracellular signal‐regulated kinases1/2 (ERK1/2) caused by hypoxia. These results suggested that melatonin might potentially prevent HPH via anti‐inflammatory and antiproliferative mechanisms.     

Intracellular signaling pathways involved in cell growth inhibition of human umbilical vein endothelial cells by melatonin

Melatonin, an indolamine mainly produced in the pineal gland, has received a great deal of attention in the last decade because of its oncostatic effects, which are due to its immunomodulatory, antiproliferative, antioxidant and its possible antiangiogenesis properties. Herein, we document its antiproliferative action on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Moreover, the possible cell signaling pathways when melatonin inhibited HUVEC proliferation were explored in this study. Primary HUVECs were isolated, cultured, purified and identified before the studies were performed. HUVECs were found to possess G-protein-coupled membrane receptors for melatonin (MT1 and MT2) and also nuclear melatonin receptors (RORalpha and RORbeta, especially RORbeta). No obvious expression of RORgamma was found. We investigated the membrane receptors and several intracellular signaling pathways including mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK)/extracellular signal-related kinases (ERK), phosphoinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt and protein kinases C (PKC) involved in antiproliferative action of melatonin on HUVECs. The blockade of these pathways using special inhibitors decreased cell growth. Furthermore, the constitutive activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) contributed to the proliferation of HUVECs. High concentrations of melatonin inhibited both NF-kappaB expression and its binding ability to DNA, possibly through inactivation of ERK/Akt /PKC pathways. Taken together, high concentrations of melatonin markedly reduced HUVEC proliferation; the antiproliferative action of melatonin was closely correlated with following pathway: melatonin receptors/ERK/PI3K/Akt/PKC/ NF-kappaB.     

炎症因子与糖尿病心肌病关系的实验研究

目的探讨核因子-κB(NF-κB)、诱导型一氧化氮合酶(iNOS)、环氧化酶(COX-2)在糖尿病心肌病发病中的作用。方法将60只SD大鼠随机分成对照组(30例),糖尿病组(30例)。分别于1、3、6个月末留取心肌标本,观察心肌的病理改变并用免疫组织化学法分析NF-κBi、NOS、COX-2的表达,NF-κB做凝胶电迁移(EMSA)电泳条带灰度分析。结果糖尿病大鼠较正常大鼠心肌组织中NF-κBi、NOS、COX-2的表达明显增加(P<0.01)。心肌病理结果显示:与对照组相比,糖尿病组心肌间质纤维化、凝固性坏死等病变明显加重。结论NF-κBi、NOS、COX-2伴随着心脏病理学改变而持续活化,可能在糖尿病心肌病中发挥重要作用。