Applying work-role attachment theory to retirement decision-making

This study examined the relationships between work-role attachment variables (job involvement, affective organizational commitment, and career identification) and intention to retire. Results indicated that organizational commitment was negatively related to retirement intent. Contrary to expectations, job involvement displayed a positive relationship and career identification had no relationship to retirement intent.     

Predictors of perceptions of involuntary retirement

PURPOSE: Retirement is often treated as a voluntary transition, yet selected circumstances can restrict choice in retirement decision processes. We investigated conditions under which retirees perceive their retirement as "forced" rather than "wanted." METHODS: Analyses relied on Waves 1-4 of the Health and Retirement Survey (N=1,160; 572 men and 588 women). Logistic regression models estimated the effects of background factors, choice and restricted choice conditions, and retirement contexts on perceptions of forced retirement. RESULTS: Nearly one third of older workers perceived their retirement as forced. Such forced retirement reflects restricted choice through health limitations, job displacement, and care obligations. Other predictors include marital status, race, assets, benefits, job tenure, and off-time retirement. IMPLICATIONS: Future research should establish personal and policy implications of forced retirement. Programs are needed to help older workers forced into retirement find alternative employment opportunities and to reduce the conditions leading to forced retirement.     

Relationships of proactive behaviour with job-related affective well-being and anticipated retirement age: an exploration among older employees in Belgium

Developed countries throughout the world are challenged with the ageing of their labour force. In these societal contexts, low employment rates and early labour market exits of older employees are at stake, as well as arrangements for retirement, financial household considerations and mutual obligations between generations. Although proactive behaviour has been extensively studied, no research has addressed the proactive behaviour of older employees themselves when facing (re)hiring and retention versus early retirement. For the first time, this study tests the relationships of proactive behaviour with job-related affective well-being and anticipated retirement age in a sample of employees aged 50+ (N = 89) in Belgium. The findings are obtained by using a self-report questionnaire. Statistical analysis includes correlation and regression analysis. Major findings are that (i) proactive older employees feel energetic, enthusiastic, inspired, at ease, relaxed and satisfied; and (ii) later retirement is anticipated when experiencing positive affective well-being at study.     

Changing work: Mid-to-late life transitions in employment

Job transition is an important, though largely unexplored aspect of work. The Centre for Research into the Older Workforce (CROW) conducted a survey of 5,200 people asking about their recent job transition. The experience of job transition in mid-to-late working life is discussed as a precursor to retirement and working beyond normal retirement ages. Three types of older worker were identified in this survey and dubbed: ‘choosers’, ‘survivors’ and ‘jugglers’. Each of these has different reason for making a job change and consequently different reasons for considering working after retirement. Flexible working is an attractive and popular option for ‘bridge’ jobs and for phasing into retirement but current British government policy is focused on equality and diversity and anti-age discrimination in employment practices. Little is being done to encourage more diverse forms of employment opportunities for older workers who either need or want to downshift before leaving work completely. Her research interests are older workers, gender and age discrimination, labor market policy and work organization. His research interests are older workers, job design, Human Resources practices, age discrimination, labor market trends, industrial relations and public policy.     

Role ambiguity: Older workers in the demographic transition

This paper presents recent empirical evidence to support the argument that policies designed to increase workforce participation of older workers have been unsuccessful because they have not recognized the contradictory attitudes towards older workers of employers, government, and older workers themselves. Qualitative and quantitative research with Australian employers, employees, and older job seekers were used to test two hypotheses, about the low success rate of mature-aged job seekers and about the worth of older workers with regards to the work-related attributes required in the new world of work. It was concluded that currently employed older workers are valued for their task- and organization-specific skills which, however, count for little when competing for a new job. The paper concludes by suggesting that a radical change in attitudes towards the training and trainability of older workers is required of all parties. A strong emphasis on training should be a cornerstone of policies aimed at increasing mature-aged workforce participation, which will be increasingly essential in coming decades. His publications in social gerontology include papers on well-being, productive aging, mature aged employment, retirement, fear of crime, and indigenous aging.     

Work at older ages in Japan: variation by gender and employment status

OBJECTIVES: This study describes the correlates of labor force participation among Japanese men and women aged 60-85 and examines differences by gender and employment status. METHODS: Using four waves of data collected from a national sample of older Japanese between 1990 and 1999, we estimate multinomial logistic regression models for three measures of labor force participation (current labor force status, labor force exit, and labor force re-entry) as a function of individual and family characteristics measured 3 years earlier. RESULTS: Labor force participation is significantly associated with socioeconomic status, longest occupation, and family structure. The strength and nature of these relationships differ markedly for men and women and for wage employment and self-employment. DISCUSSION: The emphasis on life course experiences and work-family interdependence characterizing recent research on retirement in the United States is clearly relevant in Japan as well. To better understand later-life labor force participation in Japan, subsequent research should incorporate more direct measures of life course experiences and family relationships and attempt to make explicit cross-national comparisons of these relationships.     

An examination of women's retirement: African American women

This paper examines the retirement of African American women with regard to their attitudes toward retirement and experiences with retirement in light of their education, family relationships and job experiences. Twenty-one older African American women were interviewed between 1991 and 1993 in their homes using a semi-structured interview format and question areas used in an earlier study of older white women's retirement experiences. We identified several patterns of why these women retired and several patterns of post-retirement reactions. In comparison to the white retirees, they shared similar reasons for retirement in that they were anticipators, resistors, and continued to work far into their aging years. They shared similar retirement experiences in that many enjoyed retirement, although some felt a loss of status. There were some significant differences, particularly in the extent to which the black women were involved with their families during their work years and following retirement, and the number of African American women who went back to work following their formal retirement. These data suggest the need to examine the meaning of retirement as it varies within genders and racial and ethnic categories.     

Unemployment of elderly employees

Due to social security provisions and collective bargaining agreements, older employees are less frequently confronted with unemployment in comparison with other age groups in the labour force. In September 1984, 422,000 older workers aged 50 years and over were unemployed. To this figure an additional 250,000 older workers must be added, who are no longer registered as unemployed but nevertheless would be interested in finding another job. Only in exceptional cases do the older unemployed find permanent jobs with the help of labour exchange or by their own initiative. A proportion of roughly 80% of the older unemployed aged 50 plus is not re-integrated into the working process before retirement. Older unemployed workers suffer particularly from the financial and perhaps even to a greater extent from the psychological effects of unemployment. In a situation, in which renumerated employment is no longer available, they pass through a rather long period of re-orientation towards a meaningful life.     

Race, gender, and the retirement decisions of people ages 60 to 80: prospects for age integration in employment

Demographic projections have prompted concerns about the potential economic burden of an aging population. This article, drawing on the 1998 Health and Retirement Study, explores ways in which race, gender, and age moderate the effects of various factors on labor force participation among people ages 60 to 80. Key findings center on health, education, and non-wage income. First, the effect of low non-wage income is weaker at older ages due to higher levels of functional disability. Second, the effect of low education is stronger for women, who perceive their chances of finding employment as low. Third, the effect of health is weaker for blacks, as they are less likely to find steady employment regardless of health. Policy implications: Employer flexibility in number of hours worked might make sense for workers close to retirement age, while job search and training programs might be preferable for workers past the typical retirement age.     

Reasons for working and their relationship to retirement attitudes, job satisfaction and occupational self-efficacy of bridge employees

Although the Baby Boomers are the fastest growing segment of the U.S. population and they are quickly approaching retirement age, research has widely neglected to look at the reasons as to why many of them intend on opting for bridge employment as opposed to completely retiring. This study examined the relationships among four reasons for working (social, personal, financial, and generative) and three attitudinal responses to bridge employment (job satisfaction, retirement attitudes, and occupational self-efficacy). In a sample of 108 recent retirees holding bridge employment positions, it was found that generativity served as a reliable predictor of job satisfaction and attitudes toward retirement, whereas the social reason for work was only a reliable predictor of attitudes toward retirement.     

Ältere Arbeitnehmerinnen in Deutschland

This contribution presents an overview to the structures and conditions of employment of older female employees in Germany. Based on information about the labor force participation rates, rates of unemployment and occupational patterns the conditions of female employment beyond midlife are examined. Relating to the standard of living, the meaning of employment for older women is discussed. Furthermore, the effects of regulations of welfare state, i. e., pension systems, on future life of the employed women are highlighted. Further topics are the completion of working life and the transition to retirement of female employees, the issue of the future working conditions of older female employees related with demographic change und future reduction of the potential of labor force. Finally the contribution stresses the importance of a holistic approach to investigate the living and working conditions of older female employees.     

Measures for age adequate adjustment of work conditions

Within the framework of a research project on behalf of the organization "Humanisierung des Arbeitslebens" (Humanization of Working Life) we investigated under which conditions (economic, technical, organizational, and social) the places of work of both older workers with a changed performance level and handicapped workers can be modified in such a way that these employees can remain at their jobs. The goal was to find a method of employment which was geared both to performance abilities and to productivity. We also investigated the problem of how to arrange transfer jobs which fulfill the demand for qualified and productive employment, when it is no longer possible for the employees to remain in the job they have held up to then - for example, when the manufacturing process does not allow the modification of a single work place. The goal of gearing work places to the needs of older employees often fails in reality for various reasons. Especially worth mentioning are: lack of comprehensibility with regard to technical-ergonomic work aids - although there is a wide range of these available; general strategy of the firms to dismiss older workers and workers with a changed performance level; qualification deficiencies of older workers; and technical problems: i.e. in shift-working firms, when the modified job is taken over in the 2nd or 3rd shift by a worker with no health limitations. In spite of all assertions to the contrary, it has become clear that jobs for the handicapped and workers with a changed performance level can be conceived, so to speak, "in stock" as early as in the planning stage.     

Predictors of organizational commitment among staff in assisted living

PURPOSE: This study examines the role of organizational culture, job satisfaction, and sociodemographic characteristics as predictors of organizational commitment among staff in assisted living. It is particularly important to examine organizational commitment, because of its close links to staff turnover. DESIGN AND METHODS: Data were collected from 317 staff members in 61 facilities, using self-administered questionnaires. The facilities were selected from licensed assisted living programs and were stratified into small, traditional, and new-model homes. Staff questionnaires were distributed by a researcher during 1-day visits to each facility. Organizational commitment was measured by the extent of staff identification, involvement, and loyalty to the organization. RESULTS: Organizational culture, job satisfaction, and education were strong predictors of commitment, together explaining 58% of the total variance in the dependent variable. Higher levels of organizational commitment were associated with more favorable staff perceptions of organizational culture and greater job satisfaction. In addition, more educated staff members tended to report higher levels of organizational commitment. Other than education, sociodemographic characteristics failed to account for a significant amount of variance in organizational commitment. IMPLICATIONS: Because job satisfaction and organizational culture were strong predictors of commitment, interventions aimed at increasing job satisfaction and creating an organizational culture that values and respects staff members could be most effective in producing higher levels of organizational commitment.     

Pension decisions in a changing economy: gender, structure, and choice

OBJECTIVES: As responsibility for financial security in retirement becomes more individualized, understanding the distribution and determinants of savings behavior grows in importance. Employed men and women often gain access to their pension assets when they change jobs. In this study gender differences in pre-retirement access to and disposition of accumulated pension assets are examined. METHODS: The authors used data from the Health and Retirement Study to model pension participation, disposition of pension assets, and use of cash settlements derived from a pension plan in a previous job. Logit models provided estimates of gender differences in access to pensions and the preservation of pension funds for retirement. RESULTS: Women were less likely to have participated in employer-sponsored pension plans; more likely to cash out accumulated pension assets when they changed jobs; and, when job changes occurred at relatively young ages, equally likely to spend the settlement. However, by their late 40s, women were more likely to save the settlement, a net gender difference that increased with age at which the settlement was received. DISCUSSION: The structure of employment compensation continues to place women at a disadvantage. Gender differences in earnings and fringe benefits not only affect current financial status, but also cast a shadow over future financial security. Although the gender gap in pension coverage has been reduced, women with pensions have access to lower benefits and less in accumulated assets. As these continuing deficits are addressed, enhancing women's tendency to save pension assets for retirement can help them build financial security.     

Attitude to aging. Survey of elderly employees of a large industry

Gerontological research in business enterprises is still rudimentary. Surveys among company staffs covering the problems of senior employees and staff are conducted rarely and published even more rarely. As the companies are not released from responsibility towards their previous staff even after retirement/pension has been reached, the author points out the need for further studies and surveys. Below, a number of results from a survey covering "getting older in employment" in particular are discussed in detail.     

Reactions of older employees to organizational downsizing: the role of gender, job level, and time.

This panel study examined the reactions of 187 federal government employees aged 45 and older during the initial phase of a large-scale downsizing and 20 months later. There were few significant differences in the reactions of older men and women. Respondents in management positions reported significantly more positive attitudes toward their job and the organization than did respondents in nonmanagement jobs. Compared with the initial phase of the downsizing, respondents reported a significant decrease in commitment to the organization 20 months later. For the two dimensions of job insecurity, perceived threat of job loss decreased, whereas sense of powerlessness over decisions affecting the future of one's job increased. A major area of concern for management is the low level of organizational trust and morale reported by the respondents at both time periods.     

The 2008–2009 Great Recession and employment outcomes among older workers

This study examined whether economic changes related to the 2008–2009 Recession were associated with employment status and job quality indicators among older workers in Europe and Israel. Data were derived from 4917 respondents (16,090 observations both before and after the recession) from 13 countries who participated in the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe. Annual data on gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, life expectancy, and quarterly unemployment rates were assigned to employment assessments from 2004 to 2013. Using difference-in-differences models, we assessed the recession’s implications on individual employment outcomes, while isolating cyclical variation within countries and individual changes over time. Among older workers, decreases in GDP were associated with an increase in the likelihood of being unemployed and a decrease in the likelihood of being retired. An increasing country-level unemployment rate had a significant effect on aspects of job quality: lower prospects for job advancement, lower job security, and higher job satisfaction. Economic recessions are thus negatively associated with employment outcomes for older workers. However, malleable policy-related factors such as longer tenure and improved general health can limit the negative employment and job quality outcomes following a recession.     

Why do men extend their employment beyond pensionable age more often than women? a cohort study

Men extend their employment beyond pensionable age more often than women, but the factors that contribute to this sex difference are unknown. This study aimed to examine sex differences in extending employment and the contribution of sociodemographic, work- and health-related factors to these differences. Participants of this prospective cohort study were 4,263 public sector employees from Finland who reached their individual pensionable date between 2014 and 2019 and responded to a survey on work- and non-work-related issues before that date. Extended employment was defined as continuing working for over six months beyond the individual pensionable date. We used mediation analysis to examine the contribution of explanatory factors to the association between sex and extended employment. Of the participants, 29% extended employment beyond the pensionable date. Men had a 1.29-fold (95% confidence interval 1.11–1.49) higher probability of extending employment compared with women. Men had a higher prevalence of factors that increase the likelihood of extended employment than women (such as spouse working full-time, no part-time retirement, low job strain, high work time control, and lack of pain) and this mediated the association of sex with extended employment by up to 83%. In conclusion, men were more likely to extend their employment beyond pensionable age than women. This difference was largely explained by men being more likely to have a full-time working spouse, low job strain, high work time control, no pain, and not being on part-time retirement.

     

Who retires early and why? Determinants of early retirement pension among Danish employees 57–62?years

The aim of this study was to identify demographic characteristics and occupational determinants of transition from employment to voluntary early retirement pension (ERP). A questionnaire-based survey among 365 employees in Denmark 57–62 years was performed in 2000, with a register-based follow-up 4 years later. Early retirement was associated with increasing age, and lower socioeconomic position. There were weak associations between gender and ERP. Low skill discretion, high conflict in work and two measures of uncomfortable work positions significantly increased the risk of ERP. The study shows that more than half of the eligible population makes use of voluntary ERP, and further indicates a potential for reducing the amount of older employees utilizing this labour market exit option through reducing certain physical and psychosocial exposures in the work environment, independent of age, gender, and socioeconomic position.