Prevalence and risk factors for transmission of infection among children in household contact with adults having pulmonary tuberculosis.

AIMS: To study the prevalence of tuberculosis infection among children in household contact with adults having pulmonary tuberculosis, and identify the possible risk factors. METHODS: Children under the age of 5 years who were in household contact with 200 consecutive adults with pulmonary tuberculosis underwent tuberculin skin testing. Transverse induration of greater than 10 mm was defined as positive tuberculin test suggestive of tubercular infection. Infected children underwent chest radiography and analysis of gastric lavage fluid or induced sputum for detection of acid fast bacilli. RESULTS: Tuberculin test was positive in 95 of 281 contacts (33.8%), of which 65 were contacts of sputum positive patients, while 30 were contacts of sputum negative patients. Nine of these children were diagnosed as having tuberculosis based on clinical features and/or recovery of acid fast bacilli; seven were in contact with sputum positive adults. The important risk factors for transmission of infection were younger age, severe malnutrition, absence of BCG vaccination, contact with an adult who was sputum positive, and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of tuberculosis infection and clinical disease among children in household contact with adult patients is higher than in the general population, and risk is significantly increased by contact with sputum positive adults.     

Diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in young children

The Stop TB Strategy encompasses promotion and support for childhood TB including diagnosis. The diagnosis of TB in low-income countries needs to be improved using existing technology. All hospitals involved in managing children with TB should have a regular stock of tuberculin. A chest radiograph (CXR) is an integral part of the diagnosis of pulmonary TB and hospitals should be able to take satisfactory CXRs of young children. If there is a reliable laboratory service, bacterial confirmation should be undertaken in selected cases. The laboratory should be able to deal satisfactorily with paediatric specimens. Gastric aspiration is the method of choice to obtain sputum from young children and generally produces higher yields than other methods, and, with good technique, results in outpatients may not be much lower than in inpatients. Nasopharyngeal aspiration is a simple alternative method requiring limited equipment. Sputum induction requires a special room, capital and recurrent equipment and a dedicated nurse. Laryngeal swabs are suitable for older outpatients unable to produce adequate sputum. Each hospital should have a clinician trained in the diagnosis and management of childhood TB, including the interpretation of CXRs and skill in fine-needle aspiration. Radiologists and clinicians should use a simple, clear, internationally accepted classification of paediatric CXRs. The clinician(s) in charge of TB services should oversee all inpatients with TB and be at the forefront in running the TB clinic. A TB nurse specialist(s) should be part of the team. There is now a will to improve the diagnosis and management of childhood TB but bringing it to fruition requires efforts by the local TB service, paediatricians, radiology departments and laboratory services.     

Fatal tuberculosis in young children.

Three young children with advanced cavitary pulmonary tuberculosis died between 1974 and 1978. Two of the patients had tuberculous meningitis as well. All diagnoses were verified at autopsy; however, all tuberculin skin tests were negative. These instances emphasize the difficulty of establishing the diagnosis of tuberculosis in young children. Tuberculosis should be considered in the differential diagnosis of cavitary chest disease in young children, even those with negative tuberculin skin tests.     

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喘鸣是婴幼儿时期呼吸道疾病中最常见的症状,病因很多,并非所有的喘鸣均由哮喘引起。气管、支气管炎及气管、支气管软骨软弱、异物、血管畸形,胸内肿瘤以及支气管淋巴结核等,均可引起喘鸣。分析天津市儿童医院收治的以喘鸣为主要症状的3岁以下婴幼儿196例,其主要病因见表1。表1天津市儿童医院收治的196例以喘鸣为主要症状的婴幼儿喘鸣病因病因例数大气道阻塞气管、支气管异物21气管、支气管淋巴结核51先天性气管、支气管、肺发育畸形12支气管软骨软化3纵隔囊肿和(或)肿瘤19血管畸形1中叶综合征5小气道阻塞毛细支气管炎30以喘息为表型的婴幼…     

Two pediatric cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis treated with linezolid and moxifloxacin

We report here 2 pediatric cases of multidrug-resistant (MDR) tuberculosis (TB) that were observed in Italy. Both families came from an Eastern European country, which is notably an area with a high prevalence of MDR TB. An increase of new cases of MDR TB in developed countries is expected over the next years because of migratory flow, and specific measures and strategies need to be taken to prevent the propagation and dissemination of MDR TB. An efficacious treatment including linezolid and moxifloxacin was administered for 13 months in 1 case. No adverse reactions were detected during close child monitoring. Linezolid and newer fluoroquinolones such as moxifloxacin have been reported to be effective for MDR-TB treatment in adults. On the contrary, there is limited available evidence regarding the effectiveness and safety of these drugs in infants and children with MDR TB. The use of second-line drugs not approved for use in children may be necessary to treat a life-threatening disease such as MDR TB, but it requires careful monitoring to quickly recognize the occurrence of dose- and duration-dependent adverse drug reactions.     

Pyrazinamide plasma concentrations in young children with tuberculosis

Pyrazinamide plasma concentrations were determined in 34 children (median age, 3.32 years) 1 month after commencing antituberculosis treatment. The median (interquartile range) peak concentration was 30.7 (25.5, 35.0) mg/L after a median dose of 23 mg/kg. Peak concentrations < 20 mg/L were found in 5 children (15%) and such low concentrations were particularly likely after doses < 20 mg/kg.     

Severe osteopenia in young children with hyperthyroidism. 2 cases

The cases of 2 young children with Grave's disease and severe bone demineralization are reported. In one case, spontaneous fracture and a collapsed vertebra were noted. Increased serum alkaline phosphatase levels and normal 1.25-(OH)2D and 24-25 (OH)2D levels were observed when 25(OH)D levels were decreased. These anomalies, not described previously in young hyperthyroid children, should be kept in mind. Bone X-ray and calcium phosphorus metabolism investigations should be part of routine check-ups of young children with Grave's disease.     

小儿肺结核误诊临床分析

目的：探讨小儿肺结核的临床特点及早期诊断问题。方法：回顾性分析71例小儿肺结核临床特点及延误诊断情况。结果：误诊为呼吸系统疾病的占46.5%,肺外疾病占53.5%。结论：小儿肺结核临床表现具多样性和不典型性,提高对小儿肺结核的认识,可减少其误诊率。     

Failure of chemoprophylaxis with standard antituberculosis agents in child contacts of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis cases

BACKGROUND: There is little published information on optimal chemoprophylaxis for children with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) contacts. Current guidelines of World Health Organization suggest that isoniazid (INH), the standard first-line chemoprophylaxis, be used for those exposed to MDR-TB. METHODS: This is a retrospective review of medical records of 5 children residing in the Western Cape Province, South Africa, who developed MDR-TB while receiving conventional chemoprophylaxis with either INH or a combination of INH, rifampin, and pyrazinamide. RESULTS: Adult MDR-TB source cases were identified for all children and resistance patterns of patient and source case isolates matched in all cases. The median age of the patients was 0.4 years. One patient participated in a trial of INH chemoprophylaxis for HIV-infected children. Four HIV-uninfected infants presented with TB-related symptoms several months after being given chemoprophylaxis because of a known source case. Stigmata of TB were cough >3 weeks in 4, weight loss or a history of failing to thrive in 3, fever in 2 infants, and reported night sweats in 1. Chest radiographs at diagnosis revealed lymphadenopathy, lobar opacification, and airway narrowing. All patients were treated for varying time periods at a TB referral institution in the Western Cape. CONCLUSIONS: Standard, first-line anti-TB agents were inadequate to prevent MDR-TB in children exposed to MDR-TB contacts. Second-line chemoprophylaxis, reflecting the susceptibility profile of the source case's isolate, with at least 2 drugs with activity against the drug-resistant isolate for 6-12 months should be considered.     

Two cases of pulmonary tuberculosis presenting with unilateral pulmonary hyperinflation in infancy

Two infants with recurrent obstructive symptoms attracted attention because of massive radiologically detected unilateral pulmonary hyperinflation. Further diagnostic procedures including bronchoscopy, revealed a pulmonary tuberculosis with lymph nodes encroaching on the bronchi. Steady improvement of clinical symptoms and hyperinflation was noted under combined antituberculotic therapy including systemic steroids.Conclusion Our two cases demonstrate that the differential diagnosis of unilateral pulmonary hyperinflation and wheezing in infancy should consider valvular stenosis by encroaching lymph nodes due to pulmonary tuberculosis.     

儿童肺结核420例临床分析

目的 提高对儿童肺结核的认识和诊断水平,以减少误诊.方法 回顾性分析2002年1月-2007年12月收治的420例肺结核患儿的临床和影像资料.结果 420例中男260例(61.9%),女160例(38.1%);3岁以下210例(50.0%),10岁以上114例(27.1%).85%患儿PPD在++以上,6.2%为阴性.46.4%患儿未接种卡介苗,32.4%患儿有活动性肺结核病人接触史.82.4%患儿以发热为主要表现,48.8%伴咳嗽,11.4%伴喘息.54.5%病程中曾误诊为其他病原引起的肺炎和胸膜炎、支气管异物、发热待查和纵隔占位等,误诊时间2周～4个月.胸片中83.3%患儿存在肺内实质浸润,75.2%肺门增大和上纵隔增宽,合并两肺粟粒影占20.2%,肺CT在各方面检出的阳性率均优于胸片.33.1%患儿合并结核性脑膜炎、腹腔结核病或骨关节结核等肺外结核病.结论 小儿肺结核发病以婴幼儿多见,其次为青春期儿童,不同年龄患儿表现为不同的临床类型.卡介苗接种史、结核接触史以及PPD试验是诊断的重要线索.各型肺结核具有相对特异的影像学特征,肺内实质浸润伴肺门或纵隔淋巴结肿大是小儿原发肺结核基本的影像特征,肺CT较胸片有更大诊断价值.相当比例的肺结核患儿合并肺外结核病,对诊断可以起到互为提示作用.