Adaptive anisotropic diffusion filtering of Monte Carlo dose distributions

The Monte Carlo method is the most accurate method for radiotherapy dose calculations, if used correctly. However, any Monte Carlo dose calculation is burdened with statistical noise. In this paper, denoising of Monte Carlo dose distributions with a three-dimensional adaptive anisotropic diffusion method was investigated. The standard anisotropic diffusion method was extended by changing the filtering parameters adaptively according to the local statistical noise. Smoothing of dose distributions with different noise levels in an inhomogeneous phantom, a conventional and an IMRT treatment case is shown. The resultant dose distributions were analysed using several evaluating criteria. It is shown that the adaptive anisotropic diffusion method can reduce statistical noise significantly (two to five times, corresponding to the reduction of simulation time by a factor of up to 20), while preserving important gradients of the dose distribution well. The choice of free parameters of the method was found to be fairly robust.     

Portal dose image verification: formalism and application of the collapsed cone superposition method

A formalism tailored for portal dose image verification is proposed to facilitate the comparison of calculated and measured portal dose distributions. Each portal image is converted into a dose proportional image and normalized to the reference beam calibration dose per monitor unit. The calculated or measured dose to a detector phantom is accordingly normalized so as to enable direct comparison. The collapsed cone kernel superposition method is adapted and evaluated for calculation of portal dose distributions in a water-equivalent detector phantom through comparisons with Monte Carlo calculations and with measurements. The deviation compared with Monte Carlo calculations for 6 and 15 MV was between +0.9% (the 0.9 quantile) and -2.1% (the 0.1 quantile) for a range of investigated geometries. Collapsed cone calculations compared with measurements for clinical fields agreed within [-1.9%, +2.4%] for 15 MV and [-0.9%, +3.2%] for 6 MV for the 0.1 and 0.9 quantiles, respectively. Hence, the absolute portal dose to a detector phantom could be calculated and verified well within the present accuracy requirements for clinical dose calculations.     

Comparison of dose calculation algorithms with Monte Carlo methods for photon arcs

The objective of this study is to seek an accurate and efficient method to calculate the dose distribution of a photon arc. The algorithms tested include Monte Carlo, pencil beam kernel (PK), and collapsed cone convolution (CCC). For the Monte Carlo dose calculation, EGS4/DOSXYZ was used. The SRCXYZ source code associated with the DOSXYZ was modified so that the gantry angle of a photon beam would be sampled uniformly within the arc range about an isocenter to simulate a photon arc. Specifically, photon beams (6/18 MV, 4 x 4 and 10 x 10 cm2) described by a phase space file generated by BEAM (MCPHS), or by two point sources with different photon energy spectra (MCDIV) were used. These methods were used to calculate three-dimensional (3-D) distributions in a PMMA phantom, a cylindrical water phantom, and a phantom with lung inhomogeneity. A commercial treatment planning system was also used to calculate dose distributions in these phantoms using equivalent tissue air ratio (ETAR), PK and CCC algorithms for inhomogeneity corrections. Dose distributions for a photon arc in these phantoms were measured using a RK ion chamber and radiographic films. For homogeneous phantoms, the measured results agreed well (approximately 2% error) with predictions by the Monte Carlo simulations (MCPHS and MCDIV) and the treatment planning system for the 180 degrees and 360 degrees photon arcs. For the dose distribution in the phantom with lung inhomogeneity with a 90 degrees photon arc, the Monte Carlo calculations agreed with the measurements within 2%, while the treatment planning system using ETAR, PK and CCC underestimated or overestimated the dose inside the lung inhomogeneity from 6% to 12%.     

Mathematical solutions of the TG-43 geometry function for curved line, ring, disk, sphere, dome and annulus sources, and applications for quality assurance

Analytic solutions for the TG-43 geometry function for curved line, ring, disk, sphere, dome and annulus shapes containing uniform distributions of air-kerma are derived. These geometry functions describe how dose distributions vary strictly due to source geometry and not including attenuation or scatter effects. This work extends the use of geometry functions for individual sources to applicators containing multiple sources. Such geometry functions may be used to verify dose distributions computed using advanced techniques, including QA of model-based dose calculation algorithms. The impact of source curvature on linear and planar implants is considered along with the specific clinical case of brachytherapy eye plaques. For eye plaques, the geometry function for a domed distribution is used with published Monte Carlo dose distributions to determine a radial dose function and anisotropy function which includes all the scatter and attenuation effects due to the phantom, eye plaque and sources. This TG-43 model of brachytherapy eye plaques exactly reproduces azimuthally averaged Monte Carlo calculations, both inside and outside the eye.     

Experimental validation of the DPM Monte Carlo code using minimally scattered electron beams in heterogeneous media

A comprehensive set of measurements and calculations has been conducted to investigate the accuracy of the Dose Planning Method (DPM) Monte Carlo code for electron beam dose calculations in heterogeneous media. Measurements were made using 10 MeV and 50 MeV minimally scattered, uncollimated electron beams from a racetrack microtron. Source distributions for the Monte Carlo calculations were reconstructed from in-air ion chamber scans and then benchmarked against measurements in a homogeneous water phantom. The in-air spatial distributions were found to have FWHM of 4.7 cm and 1.3 cm, at 100 cm from the source, for the 10 MeV and 50 MeV beams respectively. Energy spectra for the electron beams were determined by simulating the components of the microtron treatment head using the code MCNP4B. Profile measurements were made using an ion chamber in a water phantom with slabs of lung or bone-equivalent materials submerged at various depths. DPM calculations are, on average, within 2% agreement with measurement for all geometries except for the 50 MeV incident on a 6 cm lung-equivalent slab. Measurements using approximately monoenergetic, 50 MeV, 'pencil-beam'-type electrons in heterogeneous media provide conditions for maximum electronic disequilibrium and hence present a stringent test of the code's electron transport physics; the agreement noted between calculation and measurement illustrates that the DPM code is capable of accurate dose calculation even under such conditions.     

Brachytherapy source characterization for improved dose calculations using primary and scatter dose separation

In brachytherapy, tissue heterogeneities, source shielding, and finite patient/phantom extensions affect both the primary and scatter dose distributions. The primary dose is, due to the short range of secondary electrons, dependent only on the distribution of material located on the ray line between the source and dose deposition site. The scatter dose depends on both the direct irradiation pattern and the distribution of material in a large volume surrounding the point of interest, i.e., a much larger volume must be included in calculations to integrate many small dose contributions. It is therefore of interest to consider different methods for the primary and the scatter dose calculation to improve calculation accuracy with limited computer resources. The algorithms in present clinical use ignore these effects causing systematic dose errors in brachytherapy treatment planning. In this work we review a primary and scatter dose separation formalism (PSS) for brachytherapy source characterization to support separate calculation of the primary and scatter dose contributions. We show how the resulting source characterization data can be used to drive more accurate dose calculations using collapsed cone superposition for scatter dose calculations. Two types of source characterization data paths are used: a direct Monte Carlo simulation in water phantoms with subsequent parameterization of the results, and an alternative data path built on processing of AAPM TG43 formatted data to provide similar parameter sets. The latter path is motivated of the large amounts of data already existing in the TG43 format. We demonstrate the PSS methods using both data paths for a clinical 192Ir source. Results are shown for two geometries: a finite but homogeneous water phantom, and a half-slab consisting of water and air. The dose distributions are compared to results from full Monte Carlo simulations and we show significant improvement in scatter dose calculations when the collapsed-cone kernel-superposition algorithm is used compared to traditional table based calculations. The PSS source characterization method uses exponential fit functions derived from one-dimensional transport theory to describe both the primary and scatter dose contributions. We present data for the PSS characterization method to different 192Ir, 137Cs, and 60Cs brachytherapy sources. We also show how TG43 formatted data can be derived from our data to serve traditional treatment planning systems, as to enable for a gradual transfer to algorithms that provides improved modeling of heterogeneities in brachytherapy treatment planning.     

Monte Carlo calculations and experimental measurements of dosimetry parameters of a new 103Pd source

Permanent prostate implantation using 125I (iodine) or 103Pd (palladium) sources is a popular treatment option in the management of early prostate cancer. As sources of new designs are developed and marketed for application in permanent prostate implantations, their dosimetric characteristics must be carefully determined in order to maintain the accuracy of patient treatment. This report presents the results of experimental measurements and Monte Carlo calculations of the dosimetric parameters performed for a newly available 103Pd seed source. The measurements were performed in a large scanning water phantom using a diode detector. The positioning of the source and detector was achieved by a computer-controlled positioning mechanism in the scanning water phantom. The dose rate constant in water for the new 103Pd source was determined from measurements with the diode detector calibrated with 125I sources of known air-kerma strength. The radial dose function values for the source were measured using the diode detector. Monte Carlo photon transport calculations were then used to calculate the dosimetric parameters of dose rate constant, radial dose function, and anisotropy function using an accurate geometric model of the source. The measured dose rate constant of 0.693 cGy/U-hr compares well with the Monte Carlo calculated value of 0.677 cGy/U-hr. These results are further compared with data on existing 103Pd sources.     

Comparison of EGS4 and MCNP4b Monte Carlo codes for generation of photon phase space distributions for a Varian 2100C

Monte Carlo based dose calculation algorithms require input data or distributions describing the phase space of the photons and secondary electrons prior to the patient-dependent part of the beam-line geometry. The accuracy of the treatment plan itself is dependent upon the accuracy of this distribution. The purpose of this work is to compare phase space distributions (PSDs) generated with the MCNP4b and EGS4 Monte Carlo codes for the 6 and 18 MV photon modes of the Varian 2100C and determine if differences relevant to Monte Carlo based patient dose calculations exist. Calculations are performed with the same energy transport cut-off values. At 6 MV, target bremsstrahlung production for MCNP4b is approximately 10% less than for EGS4, while at 18 MV the difference is about 5%. These differences are due to the different bremsstrahlung cross sections used in the codes. Although the absolute bremsstrahlung production differs between MCNP4b and EGS4, normalized PSDs agree at the end of the patient-independent geometry (prior to the jaws), resulting in similar dose distributions in a homogeneous phantom. EGS4 and MCNP4b are equally suitable for the generation of PSDs for Monte Carlo based dose computations.     

A quality assurance phantom for IMRT dose verification

This paper investigates a quality assurance (QA) phantom specially designed to verify the accuracy of dose distributions and monitor units (MU) calculated by clinical treatment planning optimization systems and by the Monte Carlo method for intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT). The QA phantom is a PMMA cylinder of 30 cm diameter and 40 cm length with various bone and lung inserts. A procedure (and formalism) has been developed to measure the absolute dose to water in the PMMA phantom. Another cylindrical phantom of the same dimensions, but made of water, was used to confirm the results obtained with the PMMA phantom. The PMMA phantom was irradiated by 4, 6 and 15 MV photon beams and the dose was measured using an ionization chamber and compared to the results calculated by a commercial inverse planning system (CORVUS, NOMOS, Sewickley, PA) and by the Monte Carlo method. The results show that the dose distributions calculated by both CORVUS and Monte Carlo agreed to within 2% of dose maximum with measured results in the uniform PMMA phantom for both open and intensity-modulated fields. Similar agreement was obtained between Monte Carlo calculations and measured results with the bone and lung heterogeneity inside the PMMA phantom while the CORVUS results were 4% different. The QA phantom has been integrated as a routine QA procedure for the patient's IMRT dose verification at Stanford since 1999.     

Monte Carlo calculations and experimental measurements of dosimetric parameters of the IRA-103Pd brachytherapy source

This article presents a brachytherapy source having 103Pd adsorbed onto a cylindrical silver rod that has been developed by the Agricultural, Medical, and Industrial Research School for permanent implant applications. Dosimetric characteristics (radial dose function, anisotropy function, and anisotropy factor) of this source were experimentally and theoretically determined in terms of the updated AAPM Task group 43 (TG-43U1) recommendations. Monte Carlo simulations were used to calculate the dose rate constant. Measurements were performed using TLD-GR200A circular chip dosimeters using standard methods employing thermoluminescent dosimeters in a Perspex phantom. Precision machined bores in the phantom located the dosimeters and the source in a reproducible fixed geometry, providing for transverse-axis and angular dose profiles over a range of distances from 0.5 to 5 cm. The Monte Carlo N-particle (MCNP) code, version 4C simulation techniques have been used to evaluate the dose-rate distributions around this model 103Pd source in water and Perspex phantoms. The Monte Carlo calculated dose rate constant of the IRA-103Pd source in water was found to be 0.678 cGy h(-1) U(-1) with an approximate uncertainty of +/-0.1%. The anisotropy function, F(r, theta), and the radial dose function, g(r), of the IRA- 103Pd source were also measured in a Perspex phantom and calculated in both Perspex and liquid water phantoms.     

Investigation of buildup dose from electron contamination of clinical photon beams

The contribution made by contaminating electrons present in a clinical photon beam to the buildup dose in a polystyrene phantom has been calculated and compared to measurements. A Monte Carlo technique was employed. The calculation was divided into two parts. First, the accelerator treatment head was simulated in detail using the EGS-PEGS electromagnetic shower code. Then, information obtained from these calculations was used to compute dose curves in a polystyrene phantom. Two cases were considered, one in which both electrons and photons were incident upon the phantom, and another in which electrons were eliminated from the incident beam. Results of these calculations agree with recent experimental findings. A decrease in buildup dose as well as a shift in dmax was observed when electrons were eliminated from the beam.     

Demonstration of three-dimensional deterministic radiation transport theory dose distribution analysis for boron neutron capture therapy

The Monte Carlo stochastic simulation technique has traditionally been the only well-recognized method for computing three-dimensional radiation dose distributions in connection with boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) research. A deterministic approach to this problem would offer some advantages over the Monte Carlo method. This paper describes an application of a deterministic method to analytically simulate BNCT treatment of a canine head phantom using the epithermal neutron beam at the Brookhaven medical research reactor (BMRR). Calculations were performed with the TORT code from Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), an implementation of the discrete ordinates, or Sn method. Calculations were from first principles and used no empirical correction factors. The phantom surface was modeled by flat facets of approximately 1 cm2. The phantom interior was homogeneous. Energy-dependent neutron and photon scalar fluxes were calculated on a 32 x 16 x 22 mesh structure with 96 discrete directions in angular phase space. The calculation took 670 min on an Apollo DN10000 workstation. The results were subsequently integrated over energy to obtain full three-dimensional dose distributions. Isodose contours and depth-dose curves were plotted for several separate dose components of interest. Phantom measurements were made by measuring neutron activation (and therefore neutron flux) as a function of depth in copper-gold alloy wires that were inserted through catheters placed in holes drilled in the phantom. Measurements agreed with calculations to within about 15%. The calculations took about an order of magnitude longer than comparable Monte Carlo calculations but provided various conveniences, as well as a useful check.     

Evaluation of a commercial three-dimensional electron beam treatment planning system

We evaluated a commercial three-dimensional (3D) electron beam treatment planning system (CADPLAN V.2.7.9) using both experimentally measured and Monte Carlo calculated dose distributions to compare with those predicted by CADPLAN calculations. Tests were carried out at various field sizes and electron beam energies from 6 to 20 MeV. For a homogeneous water phantom the agreement between measured and CADPLAN calculated dose distributions is very good except at the phantom surface. CADPLAN is able to predict hot and cold spots caused by a simple 3D inhomogeneity but unable to predict dose distributions for a more complex geometry where CADPLAN underestimates dose changes caused by inhomogeneity. We discussed possible causes for the inaccuracy in the CADPLAN dose calculations. In addition, we have tested CADPLAN treatment monitor unit and electron cut-out factor calculations and found that CADPLAN predictions generally agree with manual calculations.     

Evaluation of the first commercial Monte Carlo dose calculation engine for electron beam treatment planning

The purpose of this study is to perform a clinical evaluation of the first commercial (MDS Nordion, now Nucletron) treatment planning system for electron beams incorporating Monte Carlo dose calculation module. This software implements Kawrakow's VMC++ voxel-based Monte Carlo calculation algorithm. The accuracy of the dose distribution calculations is evaluated by direct comparisons with extensive sets of measured data in homogeneous and heterogeneous phantoms at different source-to-surface distances (SSDs) and gantry angles. We also verify the accuracy of the Monte Carlo module for monitor unit calculations in comparison with independent hand calculations for homogeneous water phantom at two different SSDs. All electron beams in the range 6-20 MeV are from a Siemens KD-2 linear accelerator. We used 10,000 or 50,000 histories/cm2 in our Monte Carlo calculations, which led to about 2.5% and 1% relative standard error of the mean of the calculated dose. The dose calculation time depends on the number of histories, the number of voxels used to map the patient anatomy, the field size, and the beam energy. The typical run time of the Monte Carlo calculations (10,000 histories/cm2) is 1.02 min on a 2.2 GHz Pentium 4 Xeon computer for a 9 MeV beam, 10 x 10 cm2 field size, incident on the phantom 15 x 15 x 10 cm3 consisting of 31 CT slices and voxels size of 3 x 3 x 3 mm3 (total of 486,720 voxels). We find good agreement (discrepancies smaller than 5%) for most of the tested dose distributions. We also find excellent agreement (discrepancies of 2.5% or less) for the monitor unit calculations relative to the independent manual calculations. The accuracy of monitor unit calculations does not depend on the SSD used, which allows the use of one virtual machine for each beam energy for all arbitrary SSDs. In some cases the test results are found to be sensitive to the voxel size applied such that bigger systematic errors (>5%) occur when large voxel sizes interfere with the extensions of heterogeneities or dose gradients because of differences between the experimental and calculated geometries. Therefore, user control over voxelization is important for high accuracy electron dose calculations.     

Monte Carlo evaluation of a photon pencil kernel algorithm applied to fast neutron therapy treatment planning

When dedicated software is lacking, treatment planning for fast neutron therapy is sometimes performed using dose calculation algorithms designed for photon beam therapy. In this work Monte Carlo derived neutron pencil kernels in water were parametrized using the photon dose algorithm implemented in the Nucletron TMS (treatment management system) treatment planning system. A rectangular fast-neutron fluence spectrum with energies 0-40 MeV (resembling a polyethylene filtered p(41)+Be spectrum) was used. Central axis depth doses and lateral dose distributions were calculated and compared with the corresponding dose distributions from Monte Carlo calculations for homogeneous water and heterogeneous slab phantoms. All absorbed doses were normalized to the reference dose at 10 cm depth for a field of radius 5.6 cm in a 30 x 40 x 20 cm3 water test phantom. Agreement to within 7% was found in both the lateral and the depth dose distributions. The deviations could be explained as due to differences in size between the test phantom and that used in deriving the pencil kernel (radius 200 cm, thickness 50 cm). In the heterogeneous phantom, the TMS, with a directly applied neutron pencil kernel, and Monte Carlo calculated absorbed doses agree approximately for muscle but show large deviations for media such as adipose or bone. For the latter media, agreement was substantially improved by correcting the absorbed doses calculated in TMS with the neutron kerma factor ratio and the stopping power ratio between tissue and water. The multipurpose Monte Carlo code FLUKA was used both in calculating the pencil kernel and in direct calculations of absorbed dose in the phantom.     

高重叠率下弹性成像应变估计值的小波去噪研究

目的 高的数据窗重叠率是提高弹性成像轴向分辨率的必要条件,但重叠率的增加会使位移估计的相关误差急剧增长,产生所谓的"蠕虫"噪声.本研究使用小波收缩法去除高重叠率下弹性图像蠕虫噪声.方法 对每一条轴向应变A-line先进行3级离散小波分解,然后根据4种自适应阈值之一使用软阈值函数对每一层小波高频系数进行量化,最后进行小波...     

Monte Carlo dosimetry for 125I and 60Co in eye plaque therapy

Monte Carlo calculations of radiation dosimetry using MORSE code are performed for 125I and 60Co point sources in a cylindrical head phantom that simulates the geometry of eye plaque therapy for choroidal melanoma. We obtain the dose variation in the eye at submillimeter intervals over distances as close as 1 mm and up to 2.5 cm from the source. The calculations for 125I are performed for the phantom media of water, protein, and a homogenized protein-water mixture simulating the composition of the eye. Relative dose functions for 125I for these phantom media are fitted to second-degree polynomials. Agreement is found with published results. The relative dose function for 60Co at eye position in the water head phantom is fitted to a third-degree polynomial and compared with that for 60Co at the center of a large water sphere. A boundary effect due to the head phantom-air interface on the dose distribution for 60Co is demonstrated. The dose falloff with distance is faster for the eye geometry compared with the bulk geometry. We also show that the relative dose distributions within the tumor are comparable for 125I and 60Co by comparing their relative dose functions. This result is consistent with the success of clinical trials of large melanoma treatments with 125I plaques.     

Benchmarking of the dose planning method (DPM) Monte Carlo code using electron beams from a racetrack microtron

A comprehensive set of measurements and calculations has been conducted to investigate the accuracy of the Dose Planning Method (DPM) Monte Carlo code for dose calculations from 10 and 50 MeV scanned electron beams produced from a racetrack microtron. Central axis depth dose measurements and a series of profile scans at various depths were acquired in a water phantom using a Scanditronix type RK ion chamber. Source spatial distributions for the Monte Carlo calculations were reconstructed from in-air ion chamber measurements carried out across the two-dimensional beam profile at 100 cm downstream from the source. The in-air spatial distributions were found to have full width at half maximum of 4.7 and 1.3 cm, at 100 cm from the source, for the 10 and 50 MeV beams, respectively. Energy spectra for the 10 and 50 MeV beams were determined by simulating the components of the microtron treatment head using the code MCNP4B. DPM calculations are on average within +/- 2% agreement with measurement for all depth dose and profile comparisons conducted in this study. The accuracy of the DPM code illustrated in this work suggests that DPM may be used as a valuable tool for electron beam dose calculations.     

Accurate localization of intracavitary brachytherapy applicators from 3D CT imaging studies

PURPOSE: To present an accurate method to identify the positions and orientations of intracavitary (ICT) brachytherapy applicators imaged in 3D CT scans, in support of Monte Carlo photon-transport simulations, enabling accurate dose modeling in the presence of applicator shielding and interapplicator attenuation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The method consists of finding the transformation that maximizes the coincidence between the known 3D shapes of each applicator component (colpostats and tandem) with the volume defined by contours of the corresponding surface on each CT slice. We use this technique to localize Fletcher-Suit CT-compatible applicators for three cervix cancer patients using post-implant CT examinations (3 mm slice thickness and separation). Dose distributions in 1-to-1 registration with the underlying CT anatomy are derived from 3D Monte Carlo photon-transport simulations incorporating each applicator's internal geometry (source encapsulation, high-density shields, and applicator body) oriented in relation to the dose matrix according to the measured localization transformations. The precision and accuracy of our localization method are assessed using CT scans, in which the positions and orientations of dense rods and spheres (in a precision-machined phantom) were measured at various orientations relative to the gantry. RESULTS: Using this method, we register 3D Monte Carlo dose calculations directly onto post insertion patient CT studies. Using CT studies of a precisely machined phantom, the absolute accuracy of the method was found to be +/-0.2 mm in plane, and +/-0.3 mm in the axial direction while its precision was +/-0.2 mm in plane, and +/-0.2 mm axially. CONCLUSION: We have developed a novel, and accurate technique to localize intracavitary brachytherapy applicators in 3D CT imaging studies, which supports 3D dose planning involving detailed 3D Monte Carlo dose calculations, modeling source positions, shielding and interapplicator shielding, accurately.     

Monte Carlo simulation of the Leksell Gamma Knife: I. Source modelling and calculations in homogeneous media

The Monte Carlo code PENELOPE has been used to simulate photon flux from the Leksell Gamma Knife, a precision method for treating intracranial lesions. Radiation from a single 6OCo assembly traversing the collimator system was simulated, and phase space distributions at the output surface of the helmet for photons and electrons were calculated. The characteristics describing the emitted final beam were used to build a two-stage Monte Carlo simulation of irradiation of a target. A dose field inside a standard spherical polystyrene phantom, usually used for Gamma Knife dosimetry, has been computed and compared with experimental results, with calculations performed by other authors with the use of the EGS4 Monte Carlo code, and data provided by the treatment planning system Gamma Plan. Good agreement was found between these data and results of simulations in homogeneous media. Owing to this established accuracy, PENELOPE is suitable for simulating problems relevant to stereotactic radiosurgery.