Monte Carlo simulation for IRRMA.

Monte Carlo simulation is fast becoming a standard approach for many radiation applications that were previously treated almost entirely by experimental techniques. This is certainly true for Industrial Radiation and Radioisotope Measurement Applications--IRRMA. The reasons for this include: (1) the increased cost and inadequacy of experimentation for design and interpretation purposes; (2) the availability of low cost, large memory, and fast personal computers; and (3) the general availability of general purpose Monte Carlo codes that are increasingly user-friendly, efficient, and accurate. This paper discusses the history and present status of Monte Carlo simulation for IRRMA including the general purpose (GP) and specific purpose (SP) Monte Carlo codes and future needs--primarily from the experience of the authors.     

Monte Carlo simulation of Auger-electron spectra

A procedure to calculate the complex spectra of electron-capture nuclides which simultaneously eject several electrons and X-rays with different energies is presented. The model is applied to compute spectra of the radionuclides ¹²⁵I, ¹²³I and ¹¹¹In. The spectra are then compared with experimental spectra obtained by means of liquid scintillation counting. To this end, the computed spectra were transformed to allow for the nonlinear response function for a liquid scintillator, chemical quenching, as well as the Wallac-type amplifier used for the measurements.The calculated spectra are important for applications of free parameter models in liquid scintillation counting and also for studying the impact of electron-capture nuclides on DNA.     

Monte Carlo simulation for MLC-based intensity-modulated radiotherapy.

This article describes photon beam Monte Carlo simulation for multi leaf collimator (MLC)-based intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT). We present the general aspects of the Monte Carlo method for the non-Monte Carloist with an emphasis given to patient-specific radiotherapy application. Patient-specific application of the Monte Carlo method can be used for IMRT dose verification, inverse planning, and forward planning in conventional conformal radiotherapy. Because it is difficult to measure IMRT dose distributions in heterogeneous phantoms that approximate a patient, Monte Carlo methods can be used to verify IMRT dose distributions that are calculated using conventional methods. Furthermore, using Monte Carlo as the dose calculation method for inverse planning results in better-optimized treatment plans. We describe both aspects and present our recent results to illustrate the discussion. Finally, we present current issues related to clinical implementation of Monte Carlo dose calculation. Monte Carlo is the most recent, and most accurate, method of radiotherapy dose calculation. It is currently in the process of being implemented by various treatment planning vendors and will be available for clinical use in the immediate future.     

Monte Carlo simulation of linearly polarized photons

The collision routine actually used in computer codes for Monte Carlo simulation of (partially) linearly polarized photons follows essentially one intuitive approach which simulates the unpolarized fraction of the beam by generating many polarized photons with their electric field vectors randomly oriented on the polarization plane. Clearly, this approach is more inefficient for simulating unpolarized than polarized radiation, and produces biased results which propagate on the multiple scattering terms. We propose a new scheme which is deduced from the vector transport model, valid for photons with arbitrary states of polarization. The proposed scheme avoids the splitting (and therefore the bias), thus improving the Monte Carlo variance reduction. In addition, the full polarization state after the collision can be straightforwardly determined from the incidence state and scattering geometry, allowing an update of the polarization state at every point in the phase space, which gives macroscopic information on the X-ray optics and helps to determine the contribution of each single collision chain to the final state.     

Characterization of scatter and penetration using Monte Carlo simulation in 131I imaging.

In 131I SPECT, image quality and quantification accuracy are degraded by object scatter as well as scatter and penetration in the collimator. The characterization of energy and spatial distributions of scatter and penetration performed in this study by Monte Carlo simulation will be useful for the development and evaluation of techniques that compensate for such events in 131I imaging. METHODS: First, to test the accuracy of the Monte Carlo model, simulated and measured data were compared for both a point source and a phantom. Next, simulations to investigate scatter and penetration were performed for four geometries: point source in air, point source in a water-filled cylinder, hot sphere in a cylinder filled with nonradioactive water, and hot sphere in a cylinder filled with radioactive water. Energy spectra were separated according to order of scatter, type of interaction, and gamma-ray emission energy. A preliminary evaluation of the triple-energy window (TEW) scatter correction method was performed. RESULTS: The accuracy of the Monte Carlo model was verified by the good agreement between measured and simulated energy spectra and radial point spread functions. For a point source in air, simulations show that 73% of events in the photopeak window had either scattered in or penetrated the collimator, indicating the significance of collimator interactions. For a point source in a water-filled phantom, the separated energy spectra showed that a 20% photopeak window can be used to eliminate events that scatter more than two times in the phantom. For the hot sphere phantoms, it was shown that in the photopeak region the spectrum shape of penetration events is very similar to that of primary (no scatter and no penetration) events. For the hot sphere regions of interest, the percentage difference between true scatter counts and the TEW estimate of scatter counts was <12%. CONCLUSION: In 131I SPECT, object scatter as well as collimator scatter and penetration are significant. The TEW method provides a reasonable correction for scatter, but the similarity between the 364-keV primary and penetration energy spectra makes it difficult to compensate for these penetration events using techniques that are based on spectral analysis.     

On the Monte Carlo simulation of HPGe gamma-spectrometry systems

Typical applications of Monte Carlo simulations in low-level gamma-ray spectrometry are presented. The current state of coincidence summing computations is briefly reviewed. Several problems concerning direct computation of the efficiency by Monte Carlo simulations are discussed.     

Center-of-mass Monte Carlo simulation of neutron scattering experiments

A simple Monte Carlo method for simulating neutron-scattering experiments is presented. The method is based on performing isotropic collision kinematics in the center-of-mass coordinate system and the utilization of special particle-fluence estimators. The developed algorithm is verified against the general-purpose Monte Carlo code MORSE-CG for two diverse problems. The use of the method to aid in the development and design of neutron scatterometers for gauging applications is also demonstrated.     

Monte Carlo simulation of an iron ore analyser

The general purpose Monte Carlo code MORSE and nuclear data derived from ENDF/B-IV are used to model an iron ore analyser which detects thermal neutron capture γ rays from ⁵⁶Fe. Measurements on an actual system have been simulated. Calculated detector count rates agree, after normalisation, with measured values to within the accuracy of the calculations (∼5% at 1σ). Practical use of the model is dependent upon improving the efficiency of the calculations.     

Computed radiography simulation using the Monte Carlo code MCNPX

Simulating X-ray images has been of great interest in recent years as it makes possible an analysis of how X-ray images are affected owing to relevant operating parameters. In this paper, a procedure for simulating computed radiographic images using the Monte Carlo code MCNPX is proposed. The sensitivity curve of the BaFBr image plate detector as well as the characteristic noise of a 16-bit computed radiography system were considered during the methodology’s development. The results obtained confirm that the proposed procedure for simulating computed radiographic images is satisfactory, as it allows obtaining results comparable with experimental data.     

Monte Carlo simulation of a clinical linear accelerator

The effects of the physical parameters of an electron beam from a Siemens PRIMUS clinical linear accelerator (linac) on the dose distribution in water were investigated by Monte Carlo simulation. The EGS4 user code, OMEGA/BEAM, was used in this study. Various incident electron beams, for example, with different energies, spot sizes and distances from the point source, were simulated using the detailed linac head structure in the 6 MV photon mode. Approximately 10 million particles were collected in the scored plane, which was set under the reticle to form the so-called phase space file. The phase space file served as a source for simulating the dose distribution in water using DOSXYZ. Dose profiles at D_max (1.5 cm) and PDD curves were calculated following simulating about 1 billion histories for dose profiles and 500 million histories for percent depth dose (PDD) curves in a 30×30×30 cm³ water phantom. The simulation results were compared with the data measured by a CEA film and an ion chamber. The results show that the dose profiles are influenced by the energy and the spot size, while PDD curves are primarily influenced by the energy of the incident beam. The effect of the distance from the point source on the dose profile is not significant and is recommended to be set at infinity. We also recommend adjusting the beam energy by using PDD curves and, then, adjusting the spot size by using the dose profile to maintain the consistency of the Monte Carlo results and measured data.     

Quantification of dopaminergic neurotransmission SPECT studies with 123I-labelled radioligands. A comparison between different imaging systems and data acquisition protocols using Monte Carlo simulation

PURPOSE: (123)I-labelled radioligands are commonly used for single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging of the dopaminergic system to study the dopamine transporter binding. The aim of this work was to compare the quantitative capabilities of two different SPECT systems through Monte Carlo (MC) simulation. METHODS: The SimSET MC code was employed to generate simulated projections of a numerical phantom for two gamma cameras equipped with a parallel and a fan-beam collimator, respectively. A fully 3D iterative reconstruction algorithm was used to compensate for attenuation, the spatially variant point spread function (PSF) and scatter. A post-reconstruction partial volume effect (PVE) compensation was also developed. RESULTS: For both systems, the correction for all degradations and PVE compensation resulted in recovery factors of the theoretical specific uptake ratio (SUR) close to 100%. For a SUR value of 4, the recovered SUR for the parallel imaging system was 33% for a reconstruction without corrections (OSEM), 45% for a reconstruction with attenuation correction (OSEM-A), 56% for a 3D reconstruction with attenuation and PSF corrections (OSEM-AP), 68% for OSEM-AP with scatter correction (OSEM-APS) and 97% for OSEM-APS plus PVE compensation (OSEM-APSV). For the fan-beam imaging system, the recovered SUR was 41% without corrections, 55% for OSEM-A, 65% for OSEM-AP, 75% for OSEM-APS and 102% for OSEM-APSV. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that the correction for degradations increases the quantification accuracy, with PVE compensation playing a major role in the SUR quantification. The proposed methodology allows us to reach similar SUR values for different SPECT systems, thereby allowing a reliable standardisation in multicentric studies.     

Monte Carlo simulation of the self-absorption corrections for natural samples in gamma-ray spectrometry

Gamma-ray self-attenuation corrections in the energy range 60–2000 keV were evaluated by means of Monte Carlo calculations for environmental samples in a cylindrical measuring geometry. The dependence of the full-energy peak efficiency on the sample density was obtained for some particular photon energies and, as a result, the corresponding self-attenuation correction factors were obtained. The calculations were performed by assuming that natural materials have mass attenuation coefficients very similar to those of water in the energy range studied. Three different HpGe coaxial detectors were considered: an n-type detector with 44.3% relative efficiency and two p-type detectors of relative efficiencies 20.0% and 30.5%. Our calculations were in very good agreement with the self-attenuation correction factors obtained experimentally by other workers for environmental samples of different densities. This work demonstrates the reliability of Monte Carlo calculations for correcting photon self-attenuation in natural samples. The results also show that the corresponding correction factors are essentially unaffected by the specific coaxial detector used.     

Monte Carlo simulation of surface percent depth dose.

This work studied the surface percent depth dose of 6 and 15 MV X-rays, 10 x 10 cm2 and 20 x 20 cm2 fields by Monte Carlo simulation. The OMEGA/BEAM code, an EGS4 user code developed by the NRCC, was used. The linac, Siemens PRIMUS, was accurately modeled according to the ion chamber and CEA film measurement, and the phase space data generated from this linac were collected to simulate dose distribution in water. The water phantom had radius 30 cm and thickness 10 cm. The percent depth doses at zero depth, PDDsurface, for 6 MV X-rays were 13.85 +/- 0.11% and 23.21 +/- 0.20% for the 10 x 10 cm2 and 20 x 20 cm2 fields, respectively. For 15 MV X-rays, PDDsurface values were 8.83 +/- 0.07% and 18.60 +/- 0.12% for the 10 x 10 cm2 and 20 x 20 cm2 fields, respectively.     

Application of digital image processing for the generation of voxels phantoms for Monte Carlo simulation

This paper presents the application of a computational methodology for optimizing the conversion of medical tomographic images in voxel anthropomorphic models for simulation of radiation transport using the MCNP code. A computational system was developed for digital image processing that compresses the information from the DICOM medical image before it is converted to the Scan2MCNP software input file for optimization of the image data. In order to validate the computational methodology, a radiosurgery treatment simulation was performed using the Alderson Rando phantom and the acquisition of DICOM images was performed. The simulation results were compared with data obtained with the BrainLab planning system. The comparison showed good agreement for three orthogonal treatment beams of (60)Co gamma radiation. The percentage differences were 3.07%, 0.77% and 6.15% for axial, coronal and sagital projections, respectively.     

Organic scintillators response function modeling for Monte Carlo simulation of Time-of-Flight measurements

In neutron Time-of-Flight (TOF) measurements performed with fast organic scintillation detectors, both pulse arrival time and amplitude are relevant. Monte Carlo simulation can be used to calculate the time-energy dependant neutron flux at the detector position. To convert the flux into a pulse height spectrum, one must calculate the detector response function for mono-energetic neutrons. MCNP can be used to design TOF systems, but standard MCNP versions cannot reliably calculate the energy deposited by fast neutrons in the detector since multiple scattering effects must be taken into account in an analog way, the individual recoil particles energy deposit being summed with the appropriate scintillation efficiency. In this paper, the energy response function of 2″×2″ and 5″×5″ liquid scintillation BC-501 A (Bicron) detectors to fast neutrons ranging from 20 keV to 5.0 MeV is computed with GEANT4 to be coupled with MCNPX through the "MCNP Output Data Analysis" software developed under ROOT (Carasco, 2010).     

15MV医用直线加速器光中子蒙特卡罗模拟

目的 研究高能医用直线加速器运行过程中因光核反应所形成的光中子辐射场。方法 利用蒙特卡罗(MC)程序模拟Clinic 2300CD型医用电子加速器15 MV X射线模式下光中子污染,掌握机头内不同位置光中子能谱和不同照射野下等中心处中子周围剂量当量变化,分析光中子在等中心平面内剂量分布和水模体中剂量衰减。结果 准直器关闭时,加速器机头内靶、主准直器、均整器和多叶准直器下表面的光中子平均能量分别为1.08、1.20、0.35、0.30MeV;等中心处中子周围剂量当量随着照射野的增大先增大后减少,在30 cm × 30 cm照射野下达到最大;随着测点在水模体中的深度增加,中子通量先增加后减小,而中子剂量却在逐渐减小;不同照射野下,光中子剂量率在水模体深度20 cm处,基本都接近本底。结论 探究高能医用直线加速器机头光中子谱和剂量分布特点,以及光中子在水模体内剂量沉积规律,能为进一步研究高能医用直线加速器光中子污染对患者产生的附加剂量提供支持。     

Validation of the summary ROC for diagnostic test meta-analysis: a Monte Carlo simulation

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: The author performed this study to test a technique for validating the logit regression method for summary receiver operating characteristic (ROC) meta-analysis, perform initial validation studies, and identify areas for further investigation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Monte Carlo simulation was performed by using a custom macro program for a personal computer spreadsheet. The program creates simulated data sets based on user-specified parameters, performs a meta-analysis on the data sets, and logs the results so the accuracy and variability of the method can be measured. The program can also be used to measure the effects of changes in study design and meta-analysis parameters. RESULTS: For the base case of a small meta-analysis (10 studies) of small trials (mean, 50 patients), the meta-analysis results closely matched the input sensitivity and specificity when they were less than 80%. Systematic errors, if any, were small. At sensitivities and specificities greater than 80%, the true sensitivity or specificity was underestimated by up to 2% in the meta-analysis. Confidence intervals calculated with the summary ROC curve were reasonably conservative, although they too fell below the true results when sensitivity or specificity was greater than 80%. The underestimation was eliminated when the simulation was repeated for a much larger trial (mean, 1,000 cases per study)--even with a sensitivity and specificity of 98%. CONCLUSION: The Littenberg-Moses method for summary ROC meta-analysis is effective for obtaining an accurate summary estimate of diagnostic test performance, although the continuity correction introduces a small downward bias in the meta-analysis of small trials.     

Radiochemical separation of no-carrier-added 177Lu as produced via the 176Yb(n,gamma)177Yb-->177Lu process.

The 176Yb(n,gamma)177Yb-beta(-)-->177Lu process was investigated to provide no-carrier-added (nca) 177Lu. The radiochemical separation of the 177Lu from the macro-amounts of the ytterbium target based on the cementation process, i.e. the selective extraction of Yb by Na(Hg) amalgam from Cl-/CH3COO- electrolytes, followed by a final cation exchange purification. The cementation separation process provides a decontamination factor of Yb(III) of 10(4), the cation exchange purification adding a decontamination factor of > 10(2). The nca 177Lu is available in radiochemically pure form despite the chemical similarity of the lanthanides with 75 +/- 5% overall separation yield within 4-5 h. It can be used to synthesise nca 177Lu labelled radiotherapeuticals.