Human metapneumovirus inhibits IFN-alpha signaling through inhibition of STAT1 phosphorylation

The recently discovered human metapneumovirus (hMPV) is a major cause of lower and upper respiratory tract infections worldwide. Acute viral infection initiates the interferon response that is critical in mediating viral clearance, viral host defense, and development of adaptive immunity. Mouse models of infection suggest that hMPV can cause persistent lung infections, yet the mechanisms of evading host viral clearance are unknown. Here we report that hMPV can subvert host type I interferon signaling by a mechanism distinct from other paramyxoviruses. Two lung epithelial cell lines and primary normal human bronchial epithelial cells (NHBE) were permissive for hMPV, consistent with its tropism for the respiratory tract. Treatment of hMPV-infected cells with exogenous IFN-alpha failed to reduce viral replication. Moreover, in lung epithelial cells, hMPV infection prevented IFN-alpha-mediated transactivation of the interferon-stimulated response element (ISRE) and up-regulation of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). Further examination of the IFN-alpha signaling cascade showed that hMPV infection prevented IFN-alpha-induced phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of STAT1. The inhibitory effects of hMPV on STAT1 phosphorylation and translocation were abolished by ultraviolet inactivation. Regulation of STAT1 by hMPV was specific, as phosphorylation of STAT2, Tyk2, and Jak1 by IFN-alpha and the surface expression of the IFN-alpha receptor were unaltered by hMPV infection. These findings demonstrate that hMPV can inhibit the type I interferon response through regulation of STAT1 phosphorylation, and provide important insight into the viral pathogenesis of hMPV infection in the respiratory tract.     

浆细胞样树突状细胞前体细胞及其与疾病的研究进展

浆细胞样树突状细胞前体细胞(Pre-DC2)是属于淋巴系的一类细胞,自造血干细胞分化发育而来,表达独特表型的Pre-DC2在先天性和适应性免疫应答方面均发挥重要作用.作为体内主要的Ⅰ型干扰素(IFN)分泌细胞,Pre-DC2还具有诱导T细胞无反应性的能力.同时Pre-DC2还广泛参与病毒性疾病,自身免疫疾病,肿瘤等,本文就此作一综述.     

p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase in beryllium-induced dendritic cell activation

Dendritic cells (DC) play a role in the regulation of immune responses to haptens, which in turn impact DC maturation. Whether beryllium (Be) is able to induce DC maturation and if this occurs via the MAPK pathway is not known. Primary monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs) models were generated from Be non-exposed healthy volunteers as a non-sensitized cell model, while PBMCs from BeS (Be sensitized) and CBD (chronic beryllium disease) were used as disease models. The response of these cells to Be was evaluated. The expression of CD40 was increased significantly (p < 0.05) on HLA-DP Glu69+ moDCs after 100 μM BeSO₄-stimulation. BeSO₄ induced p38MAPK phosphorylation, while IκB-α was degraded in Be-stimulated moDCs. The p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580 blocked Be-induced NF-κB activation in moDCs, suggesting that p38MAPK and NF-κB are dependently activated by BeSO₄. Furthermore, in BeS and CBD subjects, SB203580 downregulated Be-stimulated proliferation in a dose-dependent manner, and decreased Be-stimulated TNF-α and IFNγ cytokine production. Taken together, this study suggests that Be-induces non-sensitized Glu69+ DCs maturation, and that p38MAPK signaling is important in the Be-stimulated DCs activation as well as subsequent T cell proliferation and cytokine production in BeS and CBD. In total, the MAPK pathway may serve as a potential therapeutic target for human granulomatous lung diseases.     

Rational design of new CpG oligonucleotides that combine B cell activation with high IFN-alpha induction in plasmacytoid dendritic cells

Two different types of CpG motif-containing oligonucleotides (CpG ODN) have been described: CpG-A with high induction of IFN-alpha in plasmacytoid dendritic cells; and CpG-B with little induction of IFN-alpha, but potent activation of B cells. In this study, we demonstrate that CpG-A fail to activate B cells unless plasmacytoid dendritic cells are present. We identified a new set of CpG ODN sequences which induces high levels of IFN-alpha in plasmacytoid dendritic cells but remains capable of directly activating B cells. These new CpG ODN (termed CpG-C) are more potent stimulants of B cells than CpG-B due to their ability of directly and indirectly (via plasmacytoid dendritic cells) activating B cells. The sequence of CpG-C combines structural elements of both CpG-A and CpG-B. The most potent sequence, M362, contains a 5'-end 'TCGTCG-motif' and a 'GTCGTT-motif', both of which are present in CpG-B (ODN 2006); a palindromic sequence characteristic for CpG-A (ODN 2216); but no poly G motif required for CpG-A. In conclusion, we defined the first CpG-containing sequences that potently activate both TLR9-expressing immune cell subsets in humans, the plasmacytoid dendritic cell and the B cell. CpG-C may allow for improved therapeutic immuno-modulation in vivo.     

Evidence for recruitment of plasmacytoid dendritic cell precursors to inflamed lymph nodes through high endothelial venules

Recruitment of dendritic cells (DCs) to lymph nodes (LNs) is pivotal to the establishment of immune response. Whereas DCs have been proven to undergo afferent lymphatic pathway to enter LNs from peripheral tissues, a question remains if DCs also migrate into LNs directly from the circulation. Here we demonstrate that plasmacytoid DC (pDC) precursors can transmigrate across high endothelial venules (HEVs) of inflamed LNs in mice. Bacterial infection induces a significant number of pDC and myeloid DC (mDC) precursors into the circulation. Both subsets express a common set of chemokine receptors except CXCR3, display parallel mobilization into the blood, but show distinct trafficking pathway to the LNs. In a short-term homing assay, whereas mDC precursors migrate to peripheral tissues and subsequently to draining LNs, pDC precursors directly enter the LNs in a CXCL9 and E-selectin dependent manner. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha controls not only DC precursor mobilization into the blood but also chemokine up-regulation on LN HEVs. A similar trafficking pathway is observed also in viral infection, and CXCR3(-/-) mice-derived pDC precursors show defective trans-HEV migration. This study clarifies the inflammation-dependent, chemokine-driven distinct property of DC precursor trafficking.     

Measles virus V protein blocks Jak1-mediated phosphorylation of STAT1 to escape IFN-alpha/beta signaling

Viruses have evolved various strategies to escape the antiviral activity of type I interferons (IFN-alpha/beta). For measles virus, this function is carried by the polycistronic gene P that encodes, by an unusual editing strategy, for the phosphoprotein P and the virulence factor V (MV-V). MV-V prevents STAT1 nuclear translocation by either sequestration or phosphorylation inhibition, thereby blocking IFN-alpha/beta pathway. We show that both the N- and C-terminal domains of MV-V (PNT and VCT) contribute to the inhibition of IFN-alpha/beta signaling. Using the two-hybrid system and co-affinity purification experiments, we identified STAT1 and Jak1 as interactors of MV-V and demonstrate that MV-V can block the direct phosphorylation of STAT1 by Jak1. A deleterious mutation within the PNT domain of MV-V (Y110H) impaired its ability to interact and block STAT1 phosphorylation. Thus, MV-V interacts with at least two components of IFN-alpha/beta receptor complex to block downstream signaling.     

Involvement of plasmacytoid dendritic cells in human diseases

In vitro studies have reported that plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs) exert multiple functions, including production of interferon (IFN)-alpha as effector cells and regulation of T-cell responses as mature DCs. Here we review recent data obtained in situ showing that PDCs accumulate in lesions of type I IFN-related disorders (virus infections and lupus erythematosus), Th2 cell-dominated allergic reactions, and ovarian carcinoma. These results demonstrate that PDCs do migrate to peripheral tissues during inflammation, which lends further support to the view that PDCs most likely are important players in innate and adaptive immunity in vivo. Future research should aim at defining the exact pathogenic or defense roles of PDCs in such disorders and determine whether these cells are potential targets for therapeutic intervention in microbial infections, allergy, autoimmunity, or cancer.     

Rapamycin has suppressive and stimulatory effects on human plasmacytoid dendritic cell functions

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDC) are involved in innate immunity by interferon (IFN)-α production, and in adaptive immunity by stimulating T cells and inducing generation of regulatory T cells (T_reg). In this study we studied the effects of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibition by rapamycin, a commonly used immunosuppressive and anti-cancer drug, on innate and adaptive immune functions of human PDC. A clinically relevant concentration of rapamycin inhibited Toll-like receptor (TLR)-7-induced IFN-α secretion potently (−64%) but TLR-9-induced IFN-α secretion only slightly (−20%), while the same concentration suppressed proinflammatory cytokine production by TLR-7-activated and TLR-9-activated PDC with similar efficacy. Rapamycin inhibited the ability of both TLR-7-activated and TLR-9-activated PDC to stimulate production of IFN-γ and interleukin (IL)-10 by allogeneic T cells. Surprisingly, mTOR-inhibition enhanced the capacity of TLR-7-activated PDC to stimulate naive and memory T helper cell proliferation, which was caused by rapamycin-induced up-regulation of CD80 expression on PDC. Finally, rapamycin treatment of TLR-7-activated PDC enhanced their capacity to induce CD4⁺forkhead box protein 3 (FoxP3)⁺ regulatory T cells, but did not affect the generation of suppressive CD8⁺CD38⁺lymphocyte activation gene (LAG)-3⁺ T_reg. In general, rapamycin inhibits innate and adaptive immune functions of TLR-stimulated human PDC, but enhances the ability of TLR-7-stimulated PDC to stimulate CD4⁺ T cell proliferation and induce CD4⁺FoxP3⁺ regulatory T cell generation.     

p38MAPK参与千金藤素诱导的心肌细胞凋亡

目的: 探讨千金藤素(CEP)致Sprague-Dawley(SD)乳大鼠心肌细胞的凋亡作用及其信号途径。方法: 应用MTT法检测千金藤素对心肌细胞活性的抑制作用;利用Hoechst 33342染色及Western blotting方法检测凋亡相关信号分子caspase-3,观察CEP致心肌细胞凋亡的作用;采用Western blotting法观测 CEP对有丝分裂原活化蛋白激酶(MAPKs)家族3个主要信号分子c-Jun氨基端激酶(JNK)、细胞外信号调节激酶(ERK)、p38 MAPK磷酸化水平的影响,并利用ERK和p38 MAPK的特异性抑制剂,分别验证两种分子所介导的信号通路在CEP致心肌细胞凋亡中的作用。结果: (1)CEP能够剂量依赖和时间依赖地抑制心肌细胞的活性。(2)CEP作用于心肌细胞,出现细胞核碎裂现象和caspase-3激活。(3)CEP作用下p38 MAPK和ERK磷酸化水平显著增强,JNK的磷酸化状态未发生显著改变。(4)p38 MAPK磷酸化抑制剂SB203580显著减轻CEP对心肌细胞活性的抑制作用;ERK磷酸化抑制剂PD98059不能影响CEP对心肌细胞活性的抑制作用。结论: p38 MAPK参与CEP致心肌细胞凋亡作用。     

Role of plasmacytoid dendritic cell subsets in allergic asthma

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are major type‐I interferon‐producing cells that play important roles in antiviral immunity and tolerance induction. These cells share a common DC progenitor with conventional DCs, and Fms‐like tyrosine kinase‐3 ligand is essential for their development. Several subsets of pDCs have been identified to date including CCR9⁺, CD9⁺, and CD2⁺ pDCs. Recently, three subsets of pDCs were described, namely CD8α⁻β⁻, CD8α⁺β⁻, and CD8α⁺β⁺ subsets. Interestingly, CD8α⁺β⁻ and CD8α⁺β⁺ but not CD8α⁻β⁻ pDCs were shown to have tolerogenic effects in experimentally induced allergic asthma. These tolerogenic effects were shown to be mediated by the generation of FOXP3⁺ regulatory T cells through retinoic acid and the induction of retinaldehyde dehydrogenase enzymes. These newly described subsets of pDCs show high potentials for novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of allergic diseases. In this review, we will address the new progress in our understanding of pDC biology with respect to allergic disease, in particular allergic asthma.     

BMP4 induces HO-1 via a Smad-independent, p38MAPK-dependent pathway in pulmonary artery myocytes

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are multifunctional cytokines, which play a key role in vascular development and remodeling. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), the rate-limiting enzyme in heme catabolism, has been shown to be protective against vascular and lung injury. In a microarray study, we identified HO-1 as a major target of BMP4 signaling in human pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs), and confirmed the induction of HO-1 mRNA and protein by RT-PCR and Western blotting, respectively. Immunoblotting demonstrated that incubation of PASMCs with BMP4 rapidly phosphorylated Smad1/5 and activated the mitogen-activated protein kinases, p38(MAPK) and ERK1/2, in PASMCs, but not JNK. Using pathway selective inhibitors, the induction of HO-1 mRNA and protein was shown to be dependent on activation of p38(MAPK). Induction was independent of Smad1/5 signaling, since HO-1 mRNA and protein induction was intact in PASMCs harboring mutations in the kinase domain of BMP type II receptor, with disrupted Smad signaling. In addition, adenoviral transfection of kinase-deficient BMPR-II also failed to inhibit BMP4-induced HO-1 expression. In functional studies, the HO-1 inhibitor, ZnPP-IX, partly reversed the growth-inhibitory effects of BMP4, and overexpression of HO-1 in PASMCs inhibited serum-stimulated [3H]-thymidine incorporation. Taken together, these findings show that HO-1 is an important Smad-independent target of BMP signaling in vascular smooth muscle. Inhibition of HO-1 function or expression will further increase the proproliferative capacity of BMPR-II-deficient PASMCs and may thus represent a potential "second hit" necessary for disease manifestation.     

Identification of CpG oligonucleotide sequences with high induction of IFN-alpha/beta in plasmacytoid dendritic cells.

The immature plasmacytoid dendritic cell (PDC) is identical with the principal type I IFN-producing cell upon viral infection. Oligodeoxynucleotides which contain unmethylated CpG motifs (CpG ODN) are recognized by the vertebrate immune system. Previously, we described CpG ODN that strongly activate human B cells and human blood dendritic cells. Here we describe distinct CpG-containing oligonucleotide sequences which, in contrast to previously described CpG ODN, induced high amounts of IFN-alpha and IFN-beta in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Intracellular staining for IFN-alpha revealed that within PBMC CpG ODN-induced IFN-alpha is produced exclusively by PDC. Unlike IFN-alpha, TNF-alpha is up-regulated in PDC by all CpG ODN tested. Purified PDC responded to CpG ODN, demonstrating direct activation of PDC by CpG ODN. The most active sequence induced the production of up to 5 pg IFN-alpha per single PDC, resulting in more than 400 ng/ml IFN-alpha in the supernatant of PBMC enriched for PDC. The potency of CpG ODN to stimulate IFN-alpha correlated with their ability to stimulate NK cell lytic activity, while purified NK cells did not respond to CpG ODN. IFNgamma production in PBMC was dependent on CpG ODN-induced IFN-alpha/beta as demonstrated by IFN-alpha/beta blocking antibodies. IFN-alpha-inducing CpG ODN strongly supported IFN-gamma production of TCR-triggered CD4 T cells but were less active than other CpG ODN in stimulating B cells. In conclusion our results demonstrate that particular CpG ODN sequences exist which, due to high IFN-alpha/beta induction in PDC, induce a set of immune responses typical for viral infection.     

Inhibitory oligodeoxynucleotides downregulate herpes simplex virus-induced plasmacytoid dendritic cell type I interferon production and modulate cell function

Recognition of nucleic acids by TLR9 expressed by human plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDC) plays a key role in the defense against viral infections. Upon microbial pathogen stimulation, PDC secrete large amounts of type I interferon and arbitrate thereby both innate and adaptive immune mechanisms. Unmethylated CpG motifs, which are an integral part of bacterial or viral DNA, are used in vitro and in vivo to activate the TLR9 pathway, whereas inhibitory oligodeoxynucleotide (iODN) are capable of depressing TLR9 signaling. In this study we demonstrate that TTAGGG motifs containing iODN efficiently block the TLR9 signaling in terms of herpes simplex virus (HSV)-induced type I interferon production by PDC. However, iODN, as well as control ODN, still promote PDC maturation with upregulated expression of costimulatory molecules, major histocompatibility complex molecules, and other signs for PDC maturation. Furthermore, iODN and control ODN incubated PDC demonstrate increased T-cell stimulatory functions. Coculture experiments with autologous T cells indicate that iODN-treated PDC induce more CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) T regulatory cells from naive CD4(+) T cells and preincubation of HSV-stimulated PDC with iODN upregulated T cells' IFN-gamma production. These data indicate that iODN, while blocking type I interferon production by PDC, modify PDC activation and maturation as well as T-cell priming and stimulation. Knowledge about the different functions of iODN on PDC elucidated might be crucial for immunotherapeutic strategies in which iODN motifs are used to prevent the interaction of CpG-DNA with TLR9 to calm down specific immunological responses, because our data indicate that iODN might not only have inhibitory functions but also be effective activators of immune cells.     

Characterization of human peritoneal dendritic cell precursors and their involvement in peritonitis

Scattered evidence suggests that the human peritoneal cavity contains cells of the dendritic cell (DC) lineage but their characterization is missing. Here, we report that the peritoneal cavity of normal subjects and of stable patients on peritoneal dialysis (PD) contains a population of CD14(+) cells that can differentiate into DCs or macrophages. Within this pool, we characterized a CD14(+)CD4(+) cell subset (2.2% of the peritoneal cells) fulfilling the definition of myeloid DC precursors or pre-DC1 cells. These cells expressed high levels of HLA-DR, CD13, CD33, and CD86, and low levels of CD40, CD80, CD83, CD123, CD209, TLR-2 and TLR-4. These cells retained CD14 expression until late stages of differentiation, despite concomitant up-regulation of DC-SIGN (CD209), CD1a, CD80 and CD40. Peritoneal pre-DC1 cells had endocytic capacity that was down-regulated upon LPS/IFN-gamma stimulation, were more potent allo-stimulators than peritoneal CD14(+)CD4(-/lo) cells and monocyte-derived macrophages, and induced Th1 cytokine responses. More importantly, the number of peritoneal pre-DC1 cells increased during PD-associated peritonitis, with a different profile for Gram positive and Gram negative peritonitis, suggesting that these cells participate in the induction of peritoneal adaptive immune responses, and may be responsible for the bias towards Th1 responses during peritonitis.