Chemotherapeutic agents sensitize sarcoma cell lines to tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand-induced caspase-8 activation, apoptosis and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential.

Chemotherapeutic agents have been used for the treatment of patients with osteosarcoma (OS). However, inherent or acquired resistance to these agents is a serious problem in the management of OS patients. Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is considered to induce apoptosis in a variety of cancer cells but not normal cells. In the present study, we examined whether chemotherapeutic agents enhance TRAIL-induced apoptosis in the sarcoma cell lines MG-63 and SaOS-2. Pretreatment with sub-toxic or slightly toxic concentrations of chemotherapeutic agents (cis-diammine dichloroplatinum, CDDP and doxorubicin, DXR) sensitized both cell lines to TRAIL-induced apoptosis, as assessed by the propidium iodide or Annexin V-Cy5 staining method. These cell lines expressed death receptors TRAIL-receptor 1 (TRAIL-R1) and TRAIL-R2, which were unaltered by treatment with CDDP, as assessed by flow cytometry. The decoy receptors TRAIL-R3 and -R4 were barely detected in both cell lines. CDDP down-regulated c-FLIP, tending to lower the activation threshold required for TRAIL-induced caspase-8 activation. The CDDP-pretreated cells indeed demonstrated more increased TRAIL-mediated caspase-8 activation, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (DeltaPsi(m)), and apoptosis than untreated cells. Consequently, the activated caspase-8 might lead to either activation of effector caspases such as caspase-3 or loss in DeltaPsi(m). Both the increased caspase activation and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by combination of CDDP and TRAIL would contribute to enhanced apoptotic cell death. The results of the present study would be valuable for the design of novel treatment modalities for patients with OS.     

Induction of cell death of human osteogenic sarcoma cells by zoledronic acid resembles anoikis

The aim of this study was to investigate the cytotoxic activity of the third-generation nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate zoledronic acid (ZOL) as a single agent, and in combination with clinically relevant anticancer drugs, in a panel of human osteogenic sarcoma cell lines (HOS, BTK-143, MG-63, SJSA-1, G-292, and SAOS2). We found that ZOL, when used alone, reduced cell number in a dose- and time-dependent manner, due either to cell cycle arrest in S-phase or to the induction of apoptosis. In the sensitive HOS, BTK-143, and G-292 cell lines, genomic DNA fragmentation and morphological changes characteristic of apoptosis were evident, and cells became nonadherent. Induction of apoptosis in osteosarcoma cells by ZOL was associated with caspase activation. However, coaddition of the broad-spectrum caspase inhibitors, z-VAD-fmk, Boc-D-fmk, or the caspase-3-specific inhibitor z-DEVD fmk, failed to protect these cells from ZOL-induced apoptosis. Our data support a ZOL-specific induction of cell apoptosis that involves cell detachment (anoikis), and in which caspase activation occurs secondarily to, and is redundant as a mediator of cell death. The addition of geranylgeraniol, an intermediate of the mevalonate pathway, suppressed the ZOL-induced apoptosis, suggesting that the cytotoxic effects of ZOL in osteosarcoma cells were mediated by the mevalonate pathway. While treatment of osteosarcoma cells with the chemotherapeutic agents doxorubicin or etoposide decreased cell viability, combination of these agents with ZOL did not significantly augment apoptosis in any of the cell lines tested. These observations suggest that ZOL has direct effects on the proliferation and survival of osteosarcoma cells in vitro, which has implications for future therapy of osteosarcoma.     

p16重组腺病毒联合顺铂或三氧化二砷对人膀胱癌EJ细胞作用的实验研究

目的　探讨 p16重组腺病毒 (Ad p16 )与顺铂 (CDDP)或三氧化二砷 (As2 O3 )联合应用对人膀胱癌EJ细胞体内外生长的抑制效应及机制。　方法　将Ad p16与CDDP或As2 O3 联合应用 ,通过细胞生长抑制实验 ,克隆形成实验 ,细胞周期分析 ,免疫组织化学分析 ,以及裸鼠皮下移植瘤模型 ,观察其对人膀胱癌EJ细胞的作用及机制。　结果　与单独应用相比 ,Ad p16与低剂量的CDDP或As2 O3 联合应用可明显抑制EJ细胞的体外生长 ,诱导EJ细胞凋亡 ,明显阻滞EJ细胞G1期 ;裸鼠体内肿瘤发生时间延迟 ,4周后肿瘤体积与单独应用时相比差别有显著性意义 (P <0 .0 5 )。　结论　Ad p16与CDDP或As2 O3 联合应用 ,有可能进一步提高膀胱癌的治疗效果     

Parathyroid hormone activates phosphoinositide 3-kinase-Akt-Bad cascade in osteoblast-like cells

To understand the molecular basis underlying the anabolic action of parathyroid hormone (PTH) on bone, the anti-apoptotic action of PTH on osteoblast-like cells was investigated. Since Akt is a key protein kinase for cell survival, we focused on a possible involvement of Akt in the anti-apoptotic action of PTH. Human osteoblast-like MG-63 cells cultured without serum were treated with PTH. Western blot analysis revealed that PTH rapidly phosphorylated Akt and induced its nuclear translocation. The phosphorylation of pro-apoptotic protein Bad was also increased by PTH, leading to its inactivation. The PTH-dependent activation of Akt was also detected in other osteoblastic cell lines, SaOS-2 and ROS 17/2.8. The pretreatment of MG-63 cells with either one of inhibitors for phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), wortmannin or LY294002 prevented Akt and Bad phosphorylation. Furthermore, co-immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that PTH receptor (PTH-1R) directly interacted with p85, a regulatory subunit of PI3K, in a PTH-dependent manner. Serum withdrawal induced the apoptosis of MG-63 cells, and PTH prevented the apoptosis, which was inhibited by PI3K inhibitors. These results demonstrate the presence of a novel PTH/PTH receptor signaling cascade consisting of PTH-1R, PI3K, Akt and Bad and that this cascade can work as an anti-apoptotic signaling pathway in osteoblast-like cells.     

藤黄酸联合顺铂对人骨肉瘤细胞作用的实验研究

[目的]本实验主要研究藤黄酸(gambogic acid,GA)在骨肉瘤中的抗肿瘤作用,检验藤黄酸与传统的骨肉瘤化疗药物顺铂(cisplatin,CDDP)联用是否具有协同作用,探讨其作用的机制。[方法]采用CCK-8法测定不同浓度藤黄酸、顺铂单用及联合应用对人骨肉瘤细胞MG-63的增殖抑制作用,PI染色流式细胞术检测细胞周期变化,Annexin V-FITC/PI双染色检测细胞凋亡变化。[结果]藤黄酸对MG-63具有明显生长抑制作用,且具有浓度依赖性,IC 25为0.52μg/ml,藤黄酸诱导MG-63细胞产生G2/M期细胞周期阻滞和凋亡,而顺铂则诱导产生G0/G1期细胞周期阻滞和凋亡。藤黄酸与顺铂联用时增殖抑制及诱导凋亡作用比单用时明显增强。[结论]藤黄酸通过诱导MG-63细胞周期阻滞和凋亡产生抗人骨肉瘤细胞增殖作用,藤黄酸与顺铂联用具有协同作用。     

Syndecan-2 overexpression induces osteosarcoma cell apoptosis: Implication of syndecan-2 cytoplasmic domain and JNK signaling

Syndecans are cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans that serve as co-receptors and modulate the actions of a number of extracellular ligands. Syndecans thereby regulate cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation. Studies in cancer cells suggest that syndecans may also modulate cell viability. We previously showed that syndecan-2 controls the growth of normal human osteoblastic cells. In this study, we examined the role of syndecan-2 in osteosarcoma cell proliferation and apoptosis. To this goal, MG63 osteosarcoma cells which express low syndecan-2 levels were transfected to overexpress full-length syndecan-2 or truncated syndecan-2 lacking its cytoplasmic domain. Determination of cell growth by cell counting and 3H-thymidine incorporation showed that truncated syndecan-2 inhibited MG63 cell proliferation. Flow cytometry analysis of DNA content and colony forming test revealed that syndecan-2, but not truncated syndecan-2, induced MG63 cell death. We show that characteristic features of apoptosis such as caspase activation, PARP cleavage, cytochrome c release, increased Bax expression, and DNA fragmentation were associated with syndecan-2-induced cell death. We further show that expression of full-length or truncated syndecan-2 induced differential activation of MAPK phosphorylation in MG63 cells. Notably, syndecan-2 but not truncated syndecan-2 overexpression increased JNK phosphorylation. Moreover, SP600125, a specific inhibitor of JNK, suppressed Bax expression induced by syndecan-2 overexpression, indicating that JNK activation mediates syndecan-2-induced apoptosis. The results show that syndecan-2 induces osteoblastic cell apoptosis through the JNK/Bax apoptotic pathway and that the cytoplasmic domain of syndecan-2 is required for this action. This supports a role for syndecan-2 in the regulation of osteosarcoma cell fate and identifies one signaling pathway by which syndecan-2 induces apoptosis in osteosarcoma cells.     

Inhibitory effects on in vitro cell growth of human urothelial tumor cell lines under the combined administration of hematopoietic growth factors and clinically relevant antineoplastic agents

Summary In five of eight human transitional carcinoma cell (TCC) lines a proliferative response has been reported during exposure to interleukin-3 (IL-3), granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and granulocyte colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF). To elucidate possible growth-modulating effects of these factors combined with clinically relevant antineoplastic agents, cells of the human TCC lines EJ28 and T24 were exposed to methotrexate (MTX), vinblastine (VBL), doxorubicin (DXR) and cisplating (CDDP) with and without single or continuous exposure to IL-3, GM-CSF and G-CSF at concentrations of 1–100 ng/ml. Compared with cells exposed only to chemotherapy, significant inhibitory effects occurred as a result of continuous exposure to IL-3 or GM-CSF at the highest activities with CDDP and MTX in the T24 and EJ28 lines; continuous G-CSF administration (100 ng/ml) in combination with MTX led to significant growth inhibition in the EJ28 line. In contrast, no significant growth modulation was found on combined administration of DXR or VBL with any one of the three colony stimulating factors tested.     

Inhibition of MKP-1 expression potentiates JNK related apoptosis in renal cancer cells

PURPOSE: Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) comprise 3 subgroups, that is extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 MAPK (p38). In this study we analyzed the role of JNK as well as the expression of MAPK phosphatase-1 (MKP-1) in renal cancers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Four renal cell carcinoma (RCC) cell lines were used. The effects of anisomycin (JNK activator) and Ro-318220 (MKP-1 expression inhibitor) were analyzed by alamar blue assay. Apoptosis was determined by flow cytometric TUNEL analysis, nuclear morphological alternations and the detection of DNA fragmentation. Changes in MKP-1 expression as well as the activation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases and JNK were analyzed by Western blotting. RESULTS: All cell lines treated with anisomycin resulted in a transient activation of JNK without inducing apoptosis. Since we hypothesized that elevated MKP-1 expression could possibly prevent persistent JNK activation, Ro-318220 was used. When cells were treated with Ro-318220, MKP-1 expression decreased in Caki-1 and KU 20-01 cells but not in ACHN or 769P cells. Combined treatment of Caki-1 and KU 20-01 cells with anisomycin and Ro-318220 resulted in a decrease in MKP-1 expression concomitant with persistent JNK activation. Apoptosis was induced in each cell line. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that prevalent MKP-1 expression in RCC contributes to cancer cell survival by attenuating an apoptosis inducing signal cascade via JNK. Since Ro-318220 potentiated JNK related apoptosis, JNK activation by blocking MKP-1 expression may be an effective therapeutic approach to RCC.     

Evidence for JNK-dependent up-regulation of proteoglycan synthesis and for activation of JNK1 following cyclical mechanical stimulation in a human chondrocyte culture model

OBJECTIVE: To examine the expression of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in human chondrocytes, to investigate whether selective activation of MAPKs is involved in up-regulation of proteoglycan (PG) synthesis following cyclical mechanical stimulation (MS), and to examine whether MS is associated with integrin-dependent or independent activation of MAPKs. METHODS: The C-28/I2 and C-20/A4 human chondrocyte cell lines were mechanically stimulated in monolayer cell culture. PG synthesis was assessed by [(35)S]-sulphate incorporation in the presence and absence of the p38 inhibitor SB203580, and the extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) inhibitor PD98059. Kinase expression and activation were assessed by Western blotting using phosphorylation status-dependent and independent antibodies, and by kinase assays. The Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitor SP600125 and the anti-beta(1) integrin (CD29) function-blocking antibody were used to assess JNK activation and integrin dependence, respectively. RESULTS: Increased PG synthesis following 3 h of cyclic MS was abolished by pretreatment with 10 microM SB203580, but was not affected by 50 microM PD98059. The kinases p38, ERK1/ERK2 and JNKs were expressed in both stimulated and unstimulated cells. Phosphorylated p38 was detected at various time points following 0.5, 1, 2 and 3 h MS in C-28/I2, but not detected in C-20/A4 cell lines. Phosphorylation of ERK1 and ERK2 was not significantly affected by MS. Phosphorylation of the 54 and 46 kDa JNKs increased following 0.5, 1, 2 and 3 h of MS, and following CO(2) deprivation. MS-induced JNK phosphorylation was inhibited by SB203580 at concentrations > or =5 microM and activation of JNK1 following MS was blocked by SP600125 and partially inhibited by anti-CD29. CONCLUSIONS: The data suggest JNK, rather than p38 or ERK dependent increases in PG synthesis, and selective, partially integrin-dependent, activation of JNK kinases in human chondrocyte cell lines following cyclical MS. JNK activation is also very sensitive to changes in CO(2)/pH in this chondrocyte culture model.     

Protection of rat hepatocytes from apoptosis by inhibition of c-Jun N-terminal kinase

BACKGROUND: Apoptotic cell death and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation occur after hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury. In other cell types, JNK activation was shown to be required for apoptosis. This study tested the hypotheses that JNK contributes to hepatocellular apoptosis, and that inhibition of JNK activity improves cell viability. METHODS: Rat hepatocytes were harvested from Sprague-Dawley rats and pretreated with SP600125, a JNK inhibitor. Subsequently, they were exposed to apoptotic stimuli consisting of either the bile salt glycochenodeoxycholic acid (GCDC) or tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and actinomycin D. RESULTS: Western blotting demonstrated specific inhibition of JNK by SP600125. Inhibition of JNK resulted in improved viability measured with crystal violet, decreased in situ DNA nick end labeling positivity, and decreased cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase and caspase-3. TNF-alpha and actinomycin D induced apoptosis, upregulated p53, and downregulated expression of the anti-apoptotic protein X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein. These effects were abrogated by JNK inhibition. CONCLUSIONS: These data show that pharmacologic inhibition of JNK activity reduces bile salt or TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis by maintaining expression of anti-apoptotic proteins. The results indicate that JNK is an important component of the apoptosis signaling cascade and suggest a possible therapeutic strategy in certain liver disorders.     

Activation of stress-activated protein kinases (SAPK) in tendon cells following cyclic strain: the effects of strain frequency, strain magnitude, and cytosolic calcium.

Cyclic strain has been shown to benefit tendon health. However, repetitive loading has also been implicated in the etiology of tendon overuse injuries. Recent studies demonstrated that in several cell lines cyclic strain was associated with an activation of stress-activated protein kinases (SAPKs). These SAPKs, in turn, were shown to be important upstream regulators of a variety of cell processes including apoptosis. To examine the effect of repetitive loading on SAPK activation in tendon cells in vitro, canine patellar tendon cells were cyclically strained, and the cellular stress response evaluated by measuring c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation. The effects of strain frequency and strain magnitude as well as the role of calcium signaling in this mechanotransduction mechanism were also examined. Cyclic strain resulted in an immediate activation of JNK, which peaked at 30 min and returned to resting levels by 2 h. This activation was regulated by a magnitude-dependent but not frequency-dependent response and appeared to be mediated through a calcium-dependent mechanotransduction pathway. While transient JNK activation is associated with normal cell processes. persistent JNK activation has been linked to the initiation of the apoptotic cascade. A similar mechanism could be responsible for initiating the pathological events (localized cell death) seen in tendon overuse injury.     

Resveratrol induces apoptosis in LNCaP cells and requires hydroxyl groups to decrease viability in LNCaP and DU 145 cells

BACKGROUND: This study was conducted to determine the effects of resveratrol on prostate cancer cell viability through apoptosis induction and the significance of the three hydroxyl groups on resveratrol to the measured effect. METHODS: Hormone-sensitive LNCaP cells and hormone-insensitive DU 145 cells were treated with resveratrol, tri-methoxy-resveratrol, or diethylstilbestrol (DES; the positive control for toxicity and apoptosis). Cell viability was determined by using an MTS assay. Apoptosis was determined by the appearance of apoptotic morphology, annexin V-FITC-positive intact cells, and caspase activation. RESULTS: Resveratrol and DES decreased viability in LNCaP cells, but only resveratrol-treated cells expressed apoptotic morphology, annexin V-FITC-positive cells, and caspase activation. Tri-methoxy-resveratrol had no effect on DU 145 cell-viability and was less toxic to LNCaP cells than resveratrol. CONCLUSION: Resveratrol was toxic to cells regardless of whether the cells were hormone-responsive or -unresponsive. This finding suggests that the cell's hormone responsive status is not an important determinant of the response to resveratrol. Furthermore, the hydroxyl-groups on resveratrol are required for cell toxicity. Finally resveratrol but not DES induced caspase-mediated apoptosis.     

Fas and Fas-ligand expression in human pancreatic cancer

OBJECTIVE: To investigate Fas and FasL expression in pancreatic tissues and cultured pancreatic cancer cell lines, and to assess the ability of anti-Fas antibodies to induce apoptosis. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: Activation of the Fas receptor by Fas-ligand (FasL) results in apoptosis, and dysregulation of this pathway may contribute to abnormal cell proliferation. METHODS: Northern blotting and immunohistochemistry were used to compare Fas and FasL expression in normal and cancerous tissues. DNA 3'-OH end labeling was used to detect apoptotic cells. The effects of Fas activation on cell growth and signaling pathways were investigated in culture. RESULTS: Pancreatic cancers exhibited increased Fas RNA levels, whereas FasL mRNA levels were similar in both groups. Despite the colocalization of Fas and FasL in the cancer cells, an apoptotic signal was present in approximately 10% of these cells in only 2 of 16 cancer samples. Fas and FasL were coexpressed in all four cell lines, whereas Fas-associated phosphatase 1 was below the level of detection in all cell lines. Only COLO-357 cells underwent apoptosis after Fas activation. Apoptosis was associated with enhanced activation of jun kinase (JNK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). In the presence of actinomycin D, Fas antibody also induced apoptosis in the other three cell lines. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that pancreatic cancer cells are resistant to Fas-mediated apoptosis by mechanisms excluding receptor downregulation or Fas-associated phosphatase upregulation and raise the possibility that Fas-mediated apoptosis may be dependent on the activation of the JNK/p38 MAPK pathway in these cells.     

人参皂苷CK对人骨肉瘤细胞MG-63的凋亡诱导作用

[目的]探讨人参皂苷CK对人骨肉瘤细胞MG-63的凋亡诱导作用及其具体作用机制。[方法]MG-63细胞分为空白对照组和CK药物处理组。采用MTT法检测细胞活性及增殖能力,倒置显微镜下观察细胞凋亡形态。细胞凋亡形态检测、Hoechst细胞核染色及Annexin V/PI细胞凋亡实验检测药物CK对细胞的诱导凋亡作用;Western blotting检测凋亡相关蛋白Caspase-9、Bcl-2及BAX的表达,研究其具体凋亡机制。[结果]CK能够显著降低MG-63的体外活性及生存率(P<0.05);细胞凋亡形态检测、Hoechst细胞核染色及Annexin V/PI细胞凋亡实验证明CK可诱导MG-63凋亡(P<0.05);CK处理后MG-63细胞表达的Caspase-9及BAX表达上调,相反Bcl-2表达下调(P<0.05)。[结论]人参皂苷CK对人骨肉瘤细胞MG-63具有凋亡诱导作用,而以Caspase-9为关键因素的线粒体凋亡途径在此凋亡中起着决定性作用。     

顺铂诱导原代培养人膀胱癌细胞凋亡的实验观察

为探讨顺铂诱导原代培养膀胱癌细胞发生凋亡变化的特征及机理,以O～100μm浓度顺铂处理原代培养膀胱癌细胞12～72小时,应用MTT法检测细胞增殖抑制变化,分析其与凋亡指数(AI)的关系,采用光镜和透射电镜分别观察膀胱癌细胞凋亡变化的特征．结果表明顺铂能够明显地诱导膀胱癌细胞凋亡,具有一定范围内的作用时间和药物浓度依赖性,与细胞增殖抑制密切相关．膀胱癌细胞凋亡的镜下特征为胞膜完整,胞浆浓缩,核碎裂、萎缩或边积,胞浆外突形成凋亡小体．本研究证实顺铂诱导膀胱癌细胞广泛性凋亡是它产生杀瘤效应的途径之一．     

p53重组腺病毒联合顺铂或三氧化二砷对人膀胱癌EJ细胞的作用

目的：探讨p53重组腺病毒（Ad-p53）与顺铂（CDDP）或三氧化二砷（As2O3）联合应用提高膀胱癌疗效的可能性及其机制。方法：将Ad-p53[100感染强度（MOI）]与CDDP（0．5mg/L)或As2O3(2.0μmol/L）联合应用，通过细胞生长抑制实验、克隆形成实验、细胞周期分析、免疫组织化学分析以及裸鼠皮下移植瘤模型，观察其对膀胱癌EJ细胞的作用及机制。结果：与单独应用相比，Ad-p53与低剂量的CDDP或As2O3联合可明显抑制EJ细胞体外生长，诱导EJ细胞凋亡，EJ细胞G2／M期阻滞更明显；裸鼠体内肿瘤发生时间延迟，4周后肿瘤体积与单独应用时相比，差异有显著性（P＜0．05）。结论：基因治疗与化疗联合应用，可进一步提高膀胱癌的疗效。     

Activation of ERK or inhibition of JNK ameliorates H(2)O(2) cytotoxicity in mouse renal proximal tubule cells

BACKGROUND: Our previous studies suggest that the balance between the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and the c-Jun N-terminal/stress-activated protein kinase (JNK) might determine cell fate following oxidant injury in vivo. METHODS: The mouse proximal tubule cell line (TKPTS) was used to study hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2))-induced death and survival. The role of ERK and JNK in this process was studied by using adenoviruses that contain either a constitutively active mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1 (MEK1) or a dominant-negative JNK. Acridine orange plus ethidium bromide staining was applied to distinguish between viable, apoptotic, and necrotic cells following H(2)O(2) treatment. We analyzed cell cycle events by fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) analysis and the phosphorylation status of ERK and JNK by Western blotting. RESULTS: TKPTS cells survived a moderate level of oxidative stress (0.5 mM/L H(2)O(2)) via temporary growth arrest, while high dose of H(2)O(2) (1 mM/L) caused extensive necrosis. Survival was associated with activation of both ERK and JNK, while death was associated with JNK activation only. Prior adenovirus-mediated up-regulation of ERK or inhibition of JNK function increased the survival (8- or 7-fold, respectively) of TKPTS cells after 1 mmol/L H(2)O(2) treatment. Interestingly, ERK activation and, thus, survival was associated with growth arrest not proliferation. CONCLUSION: We demonstrate that oxidant injury-induced necrosis could be ameliorated by either up-regulation of endogenous ERK or by inhibition of JNK-related pathways. These results directly demonstrate that the intracellular balance between prosurvival and prodeath mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) determine proximal tubule cell survival from oxidant injury and reveal possible mediators of survival.