Cross-Sectional Exploration of Maternal Reports of Food Neophobia and Pickiness in Preschooler-Mother Dyads

Objective: To investigate cross-sectional associations of food neophobia and pickiness in preschoolers and in their mothers with regard also to food consumption, proposal of new foods, feeding, and weaning modes.

Design: Matched child and maternal data collected by means of self-report questionnaires administered to mothers.

Setting: Kindergartens of the City of Rome Municipality, Italy.

Subjects: One hundred twenty-seven mother-child pairs. Children were aged from 2 to 6 years. All participants were normal weight or obese.

Measures of Outcome: Mothers' and children's food neophobia and pickiness.

Results: Pickiness and neophobia were related within both children's (r_o = 0.528, p = 0.001) and mothers' (r_o = 0.186, p = 0.037) samples. Mothers' and children's neophobia and pickiness were significantly although modestly associated (neophobia r_o = 0.223, p = 0.012; pickiness r_o = 0.311, p = 0.001). Overweight and obese children were significantly more neophobic (18.8 ± 6.4 vs 15.7 ± 7.6; p = 0.03) and picky (6.87 ± 2.2 vs 5.72 ± 2.7; p = 0.03) than normal-weight children.

Conclusions: Preschoolers' food neophobia and pickiness were correlated. Mothers and children displayed similarities in food neophobia, pickiness, and dietary habits. Genetics and environmental cues jointly contribute to shape preschoolers' attitudes toward familiar and unfamiliar foods. Hence, future longitudinal studies of larger samples are necessary to better define the role of genetics, parental feeding practices, and environmental characteristics in the development of food neophobia and pickiness.     

Food avoidance in children. The influence of maternal feeding practices and behaviours

The aim of this study was to examine the contribution of a broad range of maternal feeding practices in predicting parental reports of food avoidance eating behaviours in young children, after controlling for child temperament, and maternal dietary restraint which have previously been associated with feeding problems. One hundred and four mothers of children aged between 3 and 6 years completed self report measures of their child's eating behaviour and temperament, maternal dietary restraint and child feeding practices. Maternal reports of food avoidance eating behaviours were associated with an emotional child temperament, high levels of maternal feeding control, using food for behaviour regulation and low encouragement of a balanced and varied food intake. Maternal feeding practices, predominantly pressure to eat, significantly predicted food avoidance eating behaviours after controlling for child emotionality and maternal dietary restraint. The significant contribution of maternal feeding practices, which are potentially modifiable behaviours, suggests that the feeding interactions of parents and their children should be targeted for intervention and the prevention of feeding difficulties during early childhood. Future research should continue to explore how a broader range of feeding practices, particular those that may be more adaptive, might influence child eating behaviour.     

Initial investigation of associations between feeding practices,eating behaviours,and weight status in Vietnamese children using modified questionnaires

AimsThis cross-sectional study aims to extend the preliminary validation of the Feeding Practices and Structure Questionnaire (FPSQ) and Children’s Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ) in the Vietnamese context by examining associations between maternal feeding practices, child eating behaviours, and child weight status.MethodsModified versions of the FPSQ and CEBQ were used to measure maternal feeding practices and child eating behaviours, respectively, in a sample of Vietnamese mothers of children within the age range of two to five years (n = 100). Children’s weight-for-height z-scores (WHZs) were calculated using weight and height measurements obtained by clinicians. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were used to examine bivariate associations between maternal feeding practices, child eating behaviours, and child WHZs. Significant variables were then entered into a multivariable regression model.ResultsChild WHZs were associated with maternal persuasive feeding, and child slowness in eating, enjoyment of food/food responsiveness, and emotional undereating, but in multivariable regression analysis, only persuasive feeding (β = ?0.44, p = 0.027) and slowness in eating (β = ?0.39, p = 0.036) contributed significantly to the model.ConclusionsThe findings provide some evidence of construct validity for the modified questionnaires. Potential implications of dietary-related behaviours on weight status in preschool-aged children in Viet Nam are evident. However, further validation and analysis in larger datasets must be undertaken in order to examine these associations with increased certainty.     

Predictors and consequences of food neophobia and pickiness in young girls

OBJECTIVE: Vegetable intake among children is well below recommended levels. We assessed whether food neophobia and pickiness contribute to low vegetable intake in school-aged girls and if there are distinct predictors for neophobia and pickiness. Children with food neophobia are reluctant to eat new foods whereas picky children resist eating many familiar foods. Design/subjects Participants were 192 7-year-old girls and their parents, recruited for a study of girls' nutrition and development. We examined relationships between food neophobia and pickiness and assessed whether these variables predicted girls' vegetable consumption and predictors of food neophobia and pickiness. ANALYSES: The data were analyzed using a two-step process. First, we used a two-way analysis of variance to assess whether girls who scored high or low on food neophobia and pickiness measures had different levels of vegetable consumption. We used multiple regression analysis to determine predictors of food neophobia and pickiness in the girls. RESULTS: Girls with both food neophobia and pickiness consumed fewer vegetables (1.1+/-0.1) than girls with neither neophobia nor pickiness (1.6+/-0.1). Neophobia and pickiness were modestly related in this sample, but had different predictors. Girls with food neophobia were more anxious and had mothers with food neophobia. Picky girls had mothers with less variety in their vegetable intake (r=-0.22) and mothers who perceived their family to have little time to eat healthful foods (r=0.36). In addition, picky eaters were breastfed for fewer than 6 months (r=-0.25). Pickiness was predicted primarily by environmental or experiential factors subject to changes; neophobia was predicted by more enduring and dispositional factors. APPLICATIONS: Because food neophobia and pickiness negatively influence vegetable intake, intervention strategies to increase vegetable intake should focus on predictors of neophobia and pickiness, especially those subject to change.     

Significant differences in maternal child‐feeding style between ethnic groups in the UK: the role of deprivation and parenting styles

Background

Nonresponsive maternal child‐feeding interactions, such as restricting, pressurising and emotional feeding, can affect the ability of a child to self‐regulate intake and increase the risk of becoming overweight. However, despite findings that South Asian and Black children living in the UK are more likely to be overweight, UK research has not considered how maternal child‐feeding style might differ between ethnic groups. The present study aimed to explore variations in maternal child‐feeding style between ethnic groups in the UK , taking into account associated factors such as deprivation and parenting style.

Methods

Six hundred and fifty‐nine UK mothers with a child who was aged 5–11 years old completed a questionnaire. Items included ethnicity and demographic data, as well as copies of the Child Feeding Questionnaire, Parental Feeding Styles Questionnaire and Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire.

Results

Significant differences in perceived responsibility (P = 0.002), restriction (P = 0.026), pressure to eat (P = 0.045), instrumental feeding (P = 0.000) and emotional feeding (P = 0.000) were found between the groups. Mothers from South Asian backgrounds reported higher levels of pressure to eat, emotional feeding and indulgent feeding styles, whereas mothers from Chinese backgrounds reported greater perceived responsibility and restriction. Mothers from Black and White British backgrounds were not significantly higher with respect to any behaviour. Maternal child‐feeding style was also associated with deprivation and parenting style, although these did not fully explain the data.

Conclusions

Understanding cultural factors behind maternal child‐feeding style, particularly around pressurising and indulgent feeding behaviours, may play an important part in reducing levels of children who are overweight and obese in the UK .

     

Predictors and consequences of food neophobia and pickiness in young girls

Objective Vegetable intake among children is well below recommended levels. We assessed whether food neophobia and pickiness contribute to low vegetable intake in school-aged girls and if there are distinct predictors for neophobia and pickiness. Children with food neophobia are reluctant to eat new foods whereas picky children resist eating many familiar foods. Design/subjects Participants were 192 7-year-old girls and their parents, recruited for a study of girls' nutrition and development. We examined relationships between food neophobia and pickiness and assessed whether these variables predicted girls' vegetable consumption and predictors of food neophobia and pickiness. Analyses The data were analyzed using a two-step process. First, we used a two-way analysis of variance to assess whether girls who scored high or low on food neophobia and pickiness measures had different levels of vegetable consumption. We used multiple regression analysis to determine predictors of food neophobia and pickiness in the girls. Results Girls with both food neophobia and pickiness consumed fewer vegetables (1.1±0.1) than girls with neither neophobia nor pickiness (1.6±0.1). Neophobia and pickiness were modestly related in this sample, but had different predictors. Girls with food neophobia were more anxious and had mothers with food neophobia. Picky girls had mothers with less variety in their vegetable intake (r=−0.22) and mothers who perceived their family to have little time to eat healthful foods (r=0.36). In addition, picky eaters were breastfed for fewer than 6 months (r=−0.25). Pickiness was predicted primarily by environmental or experiential factors subject to changes; neophobia was predicted by more enduring and dispositional factors. Applications Because food neophobia and pickiness negatively influence vegetable intake, intervention strategies to increase vegetable intake should focus on predictors of neophobia and pickiness, especially those subject to change. J Am Diet Assoc. 2003;103:692-698.     

Are parenting style and controlling feeding practices related?

This study examined the relationships between parenting styles, feeding practices and BMI in a non-clinical sample of mothers and fathers of UK preschool children. Ninety-six cohabiting parents of 48 children (19 male, 29 female, mean age 42 months) completed a series of self-report questionnaires assessing parenting style, feeding practices, eating psychopathology and a range of demographic information. There were no relationships between authoritarian parenting and controlling feeding practices. In both mothers and fathers, permissive parenting style was related to lower monitoring of children's unhealthy food intake. Permissive parenting was also associated with increased use of restriction by mothers and pressure to eat by fathers. Authoritative parenting style was also related to lower use of pressure to eat by fathers only. Parenting styles were not related to child BMI in this sample. Higher child BMI was best predicted by lower paternal application of pressure to eat and greater paternal reports of drive for thinness. Parenting style may not have a direct impact on child BMI until child food selection and consumption becomes more autonomous.     

The association of maternal food intake and infants' and toddlers' food intake

Background Young children's first experiences with food may influence development of food preferences and lifelong eating habits. However, little is known about what factors are associated with the development of eating behaviours in infants and toddlers. Studies with older children and adolescents suggest that parental food intake is associated with children's food intake. The purpose of the present paper is to determine whether this association starts even earlier during infancy and toddlerhood. Methods A convenience sample of n= 98 primarily African American mothers of children 6–18 months old completed questionnaires, including questions on their own and their young child's food intake. Mothers completed questions while waiting to be seen by their child's primary care provider. Results Per maternal report, children consumed fruit 2.45 (1.79) times, vegetables 1.63 (1.51) times and snack foods 2.22 (2.49) times each day. Infants' and toddlers' fruit (r= 0.54, P < 0.001), vegetable (r= 0.42, P < 0.001) and snack food (r= 0.37, P < 0.001) intake were significantly associated with maternal intake of each of these foods, respectively. These significant associations remained even after controlling for additional study variables. Conclusion Even at very young ages, maternal food intake is an important correlate of children's food intake. Taken together with findings documenting significant snack food consumption in this age group, findings suggest that development of prevention and intervention programmes to enhance healthy eating behaviours need to start very early, perhaps just prior to children being introduced to complementary foods.     

Feeding practices of mothers from varied income and racial/ethnic groups

Objective: Relatively few investigators have explored the role of maternal control in describing the feeding behaviour of nonwhite parents of preschool-age children. The present study was conducted to examine if controlling feeding behaviours (i.e. restriction and pressuring) varied by income (middle vs. low) and race/ethnicity (white vs. Hispanic), and if they were associated with the body mass index (BMI) of their four-year-old offspring. Methods: Responses to the ‘restriction’ and ‘pressure to eat’ variables of the Child Feeding Questionnaire were compared between 51 white middle-income mothers and 49 Hispanic low-income mothers. Results: Mothers from both groups gave predominantly ‘neutral’ ratings in their self-reports of feeding practices. However, relative to the Hispanic mothers, white mothers indicated significantly less restriction and pressure to eat. Higher child BMI was predicted by male gender and being Hispanic. Conclusions: The utility of maternal feeding practices in predicting child overweight is discussed, and the significant association between the conceptually different constructs of restriction and pressure to eat is examined.     

Maternal child-feeding style during the weaning period: association with infant weight and maternal eating style

A controlling maternal child-feeding style has been show to have negative consequences for child weight and eating style for children over the age of 12 months. Maternal restriction is associated with increased consumption of food if given free access and child overweight. Pressure to eat conversely is associated with picky eating and a lower child weight. Little research however has considered the influence of maternal feeding style under 1 year, during the period when infants are being introduced to complementary foods. In the current study, 642 mothers with a child aged 6-12 months completed a copy of the Child Feeding Questionnaire (Birch, Fisher, Grimm-Thomas, Markey, Sawyer & Johnson 2001), the Dutch Eating Questionnaire (Van Strien, Frijters, Bergers, & Defares 1986) and reported infant and maternal weight. Differences in maternal feeding style were identifiable during this period and related to infant weight and maternal weight and eating style. Infant weight was positively correlated with maternal use of restriction, monitoring and concern for infant weight. Moreover, mothers high in restraint, external and emotional eating reported higher levels of concern for infant weight, restriction and monitoring and perceived their infants to be larger. The findings suggest that the extent to which controlling feeding practices are used is influenced by infant and maternal personal weight concerns even at this early stage. Potentially, these early behaviours could have long term consequences for child weight and eating style.     

Stability and continuity of parentally reported child eating behaviours and feeding practices from 2 to 5 years of age

Previous research suggests that many eating behaviours are stable in children but that obesigenic eating behaviours tend to increase with age. This research explores the stability (consistency in individual levels over time) and continuity (consistency in group levels over time) of child eating behaviours and parental feeding practices in children between 2 and 5 years of age. Thirty one participants completed measures of child eating behaviours, parental feeding practices and child weight at 2 and 5 years of age. Child eating behaviours and parental feeding practices remained stable between 2 and 5 years of age. There was also good continuity in measures of parental restriction and monitoring of food intake, as well as in mean levels of children’s eating behaviours and BMI over time. Mean levels of maternal pressure to eat significantly increased, whilst mean levels of desire to drink significantly decreased, between 2 and 5 years of age. These findings suggest that children’s eating behaviours are stable and continuous in the period prior to 5 years of age. Further research is necessary to replicate these findings and to explore why later developmental increases are seen in children’s obesigenic eating behaviours.     

Associations between children's appetitive traits and maternal feeding practices

This study explored associations between child eating behaviors and maternal feeding practices, specifically testing the hypotheses that maternal “restriction” is associated with having a child with stronger food approach tendencies (eg, overresponsiveness to food), and maternal pressure to eat is associated with having a child with food avoidant tendencies (eg, satiety responsiveness). Five-hundred thirty-one families with 7- to 9-year-old children from schools in London, UK, were invited to take part in the Physical Exercise and Appetite in Children Study (PEACHES). Results are from baseline data of this longitudinal study. Of those invited, 405 gave consent for their child to participate (51.6% male; 48% female). Just over half of the mothers (n=213, 53%) completed the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire and the Child Feeding Questionnaire for the index child (mean age: 8.3±0.62 years) during the 2006-2007 school year. Children were weighed and measured at school by trained researchers. As predicted, maternal restriction was associated with child food responsiveness (P<0.001), and maternal pressure to eat was associated with child satiety responsiveness (P<0.001), slowness (P=0.03), and fussiness (P=0.01). Child enjoyment of food was associated with lower maternal pressure to eat (P=0.01). All effects were independent of the child's body mass index standard deviation score and sociodemographic factors. Practitioners may find it useful to take an interactional perspective, acknowledging that children both influence and are influenced by their parents' feeding practices. This will allow the development of targeted interventions and better parental guidance on managing obesogenic eating behaviors in young children.     

The benefits of authoritative feeding style: caregiver feeding styles and children's food consumption patterns

This research tested the associations between caregiver feeding styles and children's food consumption patterns among African-American (AA) and Hispanic (H) caregivers and their preschool children. Participants were 231 caregivers (101 AA; 130 H) with children enrolled in Head Start. Caregivers completed questionnaires on authoritarian and authoritative feeding styles (Caregiver's Feeding Styles Questionnaire; CFSQ) and various aspects of children's food consumption patterns (availability of, feeding attempts for, and child's consumption of dairy, fruit, and vegetables). Simultaneous multiple regression analyses tested the unique contribution of feeding styles in predicting food consumption patterns. Authoritative feeding was positively associated whereas authoritarian feeding was negatively associated with the availability of fruit and vegetables. Authoritative feeding was also positively associated with attempts to get the child to eat dairy, fruit, and vegetables, and reported child consumption of dairy and vegetables. Authoritarian feeding was negatively associated with child's vegetable consumption. All results remained significant after controlling for child's gender and body mass index (BMI), and caregiver's ethnicity, BMI, and level of education. Overall, results provide evidence for the benefits of authoritative feeding and suggest that interventions to increase children's consumption of dairy, fruit, and vegetables should be targeted toward increasing caregivers' authoritative feeding behaviors.     

Which adaptive maternal eating behaviors predict child feeding practices? An examination with mothers of 2- to 5-year-old children

Researchers have started to explore the detrimental impact of maladaptive maternal eating behaviors on child feeding practices. However, identifying which adaptive maternal eating behaviors contribute to lower use of negative and higher use of positive child feeding practices remains unexamined. The present study explored this link with 180 mothers of 2- to 5-year-old children. Hierarchical regression analyses (controlling for recruitment venue and maternal demographic characteristics, i.e., age, education, ethnicity, and body mass index) examined mothers' intuitive eating and eating competence as predictors of four feeding practices (restriction, monitoring, pressure to eat, and dividing feeding responsibilities with their child). Mothers who gave themselves unconditional permission to eat were less likely to restrict their child's food intake. Mothers who ate for physical (rather than emotional) reasons and had eating-related contextual skills (e.g., mindfulness when eating, planning regular and nutritious eating opportunities for themselves) were more likely to monitor their child's food intake. Mothers who had eating-related contextual skills were more likely to divide feeding responsibilities with their child. No maternal eating behavior predicted pressure to eat. Interventions to help mothers develop their eating-related contextual skills and eat intuitively, in particular, may translate into a more positive feeding environment for their young children.     

Preschool-Aged Children’s Food Approach Tendencies Interact with Food Parenting Practices and Maternal Emotional Eating to Predict Children’s Emotional Eating in a Cross-Sectional Analysis

BackgroundChildren’s tendency to eat while they are emotional, irrespective of satiety, is termed emotional eating (EE). EE develops early in childhood and has been associated with maternal modelling of EE and food parenting practices. In addition, individual differences in a child’s appetitive traits (ie, food approach behaviors) are related to the development of EE.ObjectiveThe objective of this study was to examine whether or not the previously identified mediating relationship between maternal EE and child EE via maternal use of food as a reward, food for emotion regulation, or restriction of food for health reasons varies as a function of child food approach.DesignA cross-sectional online questionnaire study was conducted.Participants/settingOne hundred eighty-five mothers of children aged between 3 and 5 years were recruited between January 2020 and March 2020 from advertisements placed on social media in the United Kingdom.Main outcome measureQuestionnaires assessed child EE, child food approach tendencies, maternal EE, and food parenting practices.Statistical analyses performedUsing PROCESS version 3.4, model 14, moderated mediations were employed to assess whether or not child food approach tendencies moderated the mediating effect of controlling food parenting practices between maternal EE and child EE.ResultsThis study found the relationship between maternal reports of maternal EE and child EE was mediated by maternal use of food as a reward, but only for children with high food approach tendencies (B = .05, 95% CI 0.010 to 0.101; R² = 48%). This study also found the relationship between maternal EE and child EE was mediated by maternal use of restriction for health reasons, but only when children showed medium (B = .02, 95% CI 0.004 to 0.072) to high (B = .06, 95% CI 0.016 to 0.110; R² = 51%) food approach tendencies.ConclusionsThe potential for the intergenerational transmission of EE via the use of food as a reward and food restriction may be exacerbated when a child has higher food approach behaviors.     

Maternal feeding practices predict fruit and vegetable consumption in young children. Results of a 12-month longitudinal study

This study aimed to explore the prospective relationship between maternal feeding practices and young children's frequency of consumption of fruits, vegetables and sweets, and also child weight-for-height z-scores. Participants were 60 mothers who completed questionnaires when their children were 1 year old and again when their children were 2 years old. Regression analyses were performed. After controlling for availability and prior child consumption of the target food, maternal use of pressure to eat at 1 year predicted lower child frequency of fruit consumption at 2 years and approached significance for lower vegetable consumption. Maternal modelling of healthy eating at 1 year predicted higher child frequency of vegetable consumption at 2 years. Restriction did not significantly predict child frequency of consumption of fruits, vegetables or sweets over time. Child weight-for-height scores at 2 years were predicted by weight-for-height at 1 year but not by feeding practices. The findings suggest that maternal feeding practices can influence child eating at a very young age. Interventions should focus on encouraging parents to model healthy eating to promote healthy eating in children.     

北京市怀柔区学龄前儿童肥胖影响因素分析

目的 分析北京市怀柔区3~6岁学龄前儿童单纯性肥胖的影响因素,为早期干预提供依据。方法 采用分层整群抽样、病例对照研究的方法,对396例学龄前儿童进行家长自填问卷调查,Logistic回归分析其影响因素。结果 父母平均体重肥胖组高于正常组(P＜0.001)。父亲高体重(OR=1.082)、生后6个月采用人工喂养(OR=5.986)、每餐以肉为主(OR=7.979)、强迫儿童进食某种食物(如高能量食物)(OR=4.801)、家长对儿童体重过高预期(OR=6.191)为学龄前儿童肥胖的危险因素;家长控制儿童体重的行为(OR=0.059)为学龄前儿童肥胖的保护因素。结论 学龄前儿童肥胖的发生是多因素相互作用的结果,其中从控制父母体重、鼓励母乳喂养、平衡膳食等方面早期干预,将有益于早期预防儿童肥胖。     

Nutritional Knowledge,Parenting Styles and Feeding Practices of a South African Sample of Parents

ABSTRACT

Parenting can be considered as being an all-encompassing network of development for children. Children learn about eating not only through their own experiences but also by watching others. Mothers and children show similar patterns of food acceptance and food preferences. Children’s intake of fruit and vegetables was positively related to parents’ intake of fruit and vegetables. The current study used self-reported data from parents/primary caregivers' children aged 3–18 covering sociodemographic characteristics, feeding style dimensions (‘control overeating’, ‘emotional feeding’, ‘encouragement to eat’ and ‘instrumental feeding’) and parenting style dimensions (‘involvement’ and ‘strictness’). The results suggest, that in general, parents were inclined to encourage balance and variety in the food intake of their children, modeling healthy eating behavior, as well as monitoring the food intake of children while restricting unhealthy foods. Further research is needed into whether parents’ diets affect children’s food choices feeding.     

Body mass,frequency of eating and breakfast consumption in 9–13‐year‐olds

Background: Unhealthy eating patterns in childhood can lead to adverse health conditions, particularly obesity. However, debate remains around the precise eating behaviours that lead to these conditions. The present study aimed to address this lack of evidence by reporting on the eating frequency, breakfast consumption and body mass index (BMI, kg m^–2) of youth in the UK. Methods: A total of 264 (133 boys and 131 girls) participants, aged 10–13 years, completed self‐report measures of dietary intake via 3‐day food/drink diaries (Friday to Sunday). Trained researchers recorded height and weight to calculate the BMI. Diaries were analysed using dietplan 6 nutritional analysis software (Forestfield Software, Horsham, UK) and multivariate linear regression was used to examine any association between breakfast consumption, frequency of eating and BMI. Results: No relationship existed between BMI Z‐score, eating frequency and breakfast consumption. However, frequent breakfast consumers had significantly lower mean (SD) BMI Z‐scores [0.18 (1.06) versus 0.57 (1.23)] and higher intakes of iron, calcium and vitamin E than those who did not eat breakfast regularly. Those aged ≥11 years consumed breakfast less frequently [0.92 (0.20)] and were less likely to eat regularly [4.6 (1.4)] than those aged ≤10 years. Conclusions: Older boys were the least likely to eat regularly and the least likely to consume breakfast. Promoting the importance of regular eating, particularly breakfast consumption to these boys, may be essential to ensure healthier, long‐term eating patterns. Furthermore, the lower breakfast intakes in 11–13‐year‐olds and higher BMI Z‐scores of those who did not eat breakfast regularly should be monitored.